THE 
MATERIALS    USED   IN  SIZING 


THE   MATERIALS 
USED  IN  SIZING 

THEIR    CHEMICAL   AND    PHYSICAL   PRO- 
PERTIES,   AND    SIMPLE    METHODS    FOR 
THEIR       TECHNICAL       ANALYSIS       AND 
VALUATION 

A   Course  of  Lectures  delivered  at  the  Manchester 
School  of  Technology 

BY 

W.  F.  A.  ERMEN,  M.A. 

f-f 

ANALYTICAL  AND   CONSULTING   CHEMIST;   FORMERLY   SCHOLAR   OF   EMMANUEL 
COLLEGE,    CAMBRIDGE 


NEW   YORK 

D.    VAN    NOSTRAND    CO. 
TWENTY-FIVE  PARK  PLACE 

1912 


PREFACE 

IN  the  early  part  of  1911  I  was  asked  to  deliver  a 
course  of  lectures  during  the  Summer  Session  of  the 
Manchester  School  of  Technology  on  •"  The  Materials 
used  in  Sizing."  In  these  lectures  I  confined  myself 
to  an  outline  of  the  chemical  and  physical  properties 
of  the  commoner  sizing  materials  employed  in  the 
textile  industry,  and  to  such  methods  of  analysis  and 
valuation  as  could  readily  be  carried  out  by  the  Works 
chemist.  Many  requests  have  since  been  made  to  me 
for  a  book  covering  the  subjects  dealt  with  in  my 
lectures,  and  this  little  work  has  been  written  to  meet 
the  desire  so  kindly  expressed. 

I  have  to  tender  my  sincere  thanks  to  Mr.  Charles 
W.  Gamble  for  assistance  in  the  revision  of  the  proofs, 
and  to  Mr.  G.  A.  E.  Schwabe  for  the  trouble  he  has 
taken  in  preparing  the  illustrations  which  accompany 
the  text. 

W.  F.  A.  E. 

10,  MARSDEN  STREET, 
MANCHESTER,  1912. 


284501 


CONTENTS 


CHAP.  PAQE 

INTRODUCTION    . 1 

I.  THE   STARCHES  AND   OTHER  AGGLUTINANTS        .  .  6 

II.  WEIGHTING  MATERIALS       .  .  .  ....        32 

III.  SOFTENING   INGREDIENTS    .  .  .  .  .38 

IV.  ANTISEPTICS         .  .  .  .          .  .  .67 

V.  ANALYSIS   OF  SIZED  WARPS  AND   CLOTH    .  .  .         76 

VI.      THE        PREPARATION       OF       NORMAL       VOLUMETRIC 

SOLUTIONS 86 

VII.      TABLES 90 

INDEX  121 


THE 

MATEEIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

INTRODUCTION 

BEFORE  entering  upon  a  description  of  the  materials 
used  in  sizing,  and  of  the  methods  used  for  their 
analysis,  it  will  be  advisable  to  consider  shortly  the 
mode  of  construction  of  a  piece  of  cloth,  and  the 
reasons  for  the  use  of  sizing.  If  a  piece  of  cloth  be 
pulled  to  pieces,  it  will  be  found  to  consist  of  a  number 
of  threads  crossing  each  other  at  right  angles.  The 
threads  running  the  long  way  of  the  cloth  form  the 
"  warp,"  those  running  across  the  cloth  are  called  the 
"  weft."  In  order  to  weave  a  piece  of  cloth,  the  warp 
threads  are  placed  in  the  loom  evenly  wrapped  upon 
the  "  beam."  The  thread  which  is  to  form  the  weft 
is  wound  into  what  is  known  as  a  "  cop,"  and  this  is 
placed  inside  the  shuttle.  The  warp  threads  are  led 
side  by  side  from  the  beam  through  the  "  healds  "  to 
the  roller  at  the  front  of  the  loom,  to  which  they  are 
fastened.  When  the  loom  is  set  in  motion,  alternate 
warp  threads  are  respectively  pulled  up  and  down  by 
the  healds  in  such  a  way  that  the  shuttle  with  its 
weft  thread  can  be  shot  by  the  picker  through  the 
space  between  the  upper  and  lower  threads  of  the 
warp.  A  comb-like  structure  called  the  "  reed  "  now 
pushes  the  weft  thread,  which  the  shuttle  has  left 
behind  it,  up  to  the  point  where  the  warp  threads 

s.  B 


S'I  MATERIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

separate.  Then  the  healds  reverse,  pulling  the  upper 
layer  of  the  warp  threads  down,  and  the  lower  layer 
up,  so  that  the  thread  of  weft  is  gripped  between 
the  two  layers.  The  picker  on  the  other  side  of  the 
loom  now  shoots  the  shuttle  back  again  between  the 
threads,  the  reed  presses  the  weffc  thread  home — and 
thus  the  cloth  is  gradually  built  up  at  the  rate  of 
about  200  "  picks  "  per  minute,  a  speed  which  corre- 
sponds roughly  to  three  inches  of  an  ordinary  shirting 
cloth. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  warp  threads  are  sub- 
jected to  a  considerable  amount  of  strain  and  friction 
in  the  weaving  process.  This  is  liable  to  cause 
frequent  breakages,  and  also  an  undesirable  degree 
of  chafing  or  roughing  up  of  the  fibres  of  which  the 
warp  threads  are  composed. 

It  is  in  order  to  prevent  this  damage  to  the  warp 
that  the  thread  is  almost  invariably  sized  before  being 
woven.  The  simplest  method  of  sizing,  and  one 
practised  from  the  earliest  times,  consists  in  passing 
the  warp  through  a  boiling  starch  or  flour  paste. 
It  was  soon  found,  however,  that  such  a  simple  "  size  " 
made  the  yarn  too  stiff  and  harsh.  It  was  liable  to 
crack  and  break  if  at  all  sharply  bent,  and  the  healds 
were  also  very  rapidly  cut  through.  Hence,  tallow  or 
oil  was  added  to  the  size,  to  give  the  requisite  amount 
of  softness  and  pliability.  To  these  so-called  "  pure  " 
sizes  it  became  the  custom  to  add  a  certain  amount 
of  mineral  matter  such  as  China  clay  or  French 
chalk. 

As  the  amount  of  mineral  matter  or  loading  in- 
creased, more  fat  had  to  be  added  to  keep  the  yarn 
soft.  But  too  much  fat  gives  the  cloth  a  greasy 
appearance ;  so  that  recourse  was  had  to  other  soften- 
ing agents,  such  as  magnesium  chloride  or  glycerine. 
These  ingredients  brought  in  their  wake  a  fresh  set  of 
troubles  in  the  shape  of  a  liability  on  the  part  of  the 


INTKODUCTION  3 

sized  goods  to  develop  mildew.  Consequently,  a 
further  set  of  ingredients,  namely,  antiseptics,  have 
to  be  added  to  the  ''mixing,"  in  order  to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  the  cloth  by  the  mildew. 

By  a  judicious  combination  of  starches,  fats,  and 
mineral  matters,  it  is  now  possible  to  add  200  per  cent,  or 
even  more,  to  the  weight  of  the  warp,  so  that  the  cloth 
when  woven  may  not  contain  more  than  35  percent,  of 
cotton  fibre.  With  the  moral  aspect  of  this  question  I 
do  not  propose  to  deal.  It  will  suffice  to  regard  a  cloth 
as  heavily  sized  or  lightly  sized,  and  to  consider  the 
nature  of  the  "  feel  " — the  quality  and  appearance  of 
the  cloth  as  it  is  influenced  by  the  various  ingredients 
which  are  used  in  the  "  mixing." 

It  will  be  apparent  that  the  proposed  ingredients  of 
a  sizing  mixture  must  in  the  first  place  satisfy  three 
demands : — 

(1)  They  must  be  cheap. 

(2)  They  must  not  act  injuriously  on  the  behaviour 
of  the  yarn  during  weaving. 

(3)  They  must  not  give  rise  to  defects  in  the  cloth 
after  it  has  been  woven. 

The  materials  used  for  sizing  may  be  divided  into 
five  distinct  classes,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  added.  These  are — 

1.  Agglatinants. — The  function  of  an  ag<jlutmant 
is  to  hold  together  the  individual  fibres  of  the  warp, 
rendering  them  less  liable  to  be  frayed  and  roughened 
by  friction  with  the  healds  and  reeds,  and  to  strengthen 
them  to  resist  rupture  under  the  tension  to  which  they 
are  subjected  by  the  movements  of  the  mechanism  of 
the  loom.  An  agglutinant  is  used,  in  addition,  to  bind 
together  the  particles  of  clay  or  other  mineral  matter 
in  the  interstices  of  the  yarn,  and  to  prevent  them 
from  being  shaken  out  either  during  or  after  manu- 
facture. An  agglutinant  must  be  capable  of  dissolving 
in  water,  and  the  solution  obtained  must  be  of  a 

B>2 


4  MATEKIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

highly  viscous  character — almost  pasty — so  as  to  hold 
the  mineral  matter  easily  in  suspension,  and  to  allow 
of  the  mixture  being  readily  taken  up  by  the  warp  in 
the  size  box,  and  forced  into  the  interior  of  the  threads 
by  the  squeezing  rollers.  The  materials  used  as 
agglutinants  are — 

Wheat  flour.  Dextrin. 

Farina.  Soluble  starch. 

Corn  starch.  Iceland  and  Irish  moss. 

Sago.  Gum  tragacanth. 

Rice  flour  and  starch.  Gum  tragasol. 

Tapioca. 

2.  Softening  Materials.  —  Since  the  starchy  or  gummy 
bodies  mentioned  above,  when  applied  in  a  pure  state 
to  the  warp,  render  the  threads  too  stiff  nnd  harsh  to 
be  woven,  it  is  necessary  to  add  something  that  will 
give  pliability  and  softness  to  the  sized  threads.  The 
substances  employed  for  this  purpose  are  mainly  of  a 
fatty  nature.  But  since  any  excess  of  these  ingredients 
makes  the  cloth  look  greasy,  it  is  necessary,  where  a 
high  percentage  of  size  is  to  be  applied,  to  supplement 
their  action  by  means  of  substances  that  keep  the  yarn 
soft  by  keeping  it  damp  ;  in  other  words,  hygroscopic 
substances.  These  have  the  further  advantage  of 
adding  extra  weight  by  virtue  of  this  same  moisture 
which  they  are  instrumental  in  retaining. 

The  softeners  of  a  fatty  nature  most  employed 
are — 

Tallow.  Paraffin  wax. 

Palm  oil.  Japan  wax. 

Castor  oil.  Spermaceti. 

Cotton  seed  oil.  Oleine  oil. 

Cocoanut  oil.  Soap. 
Stearin. 


INTRODUCTION  5 

Softeners  giving  weight  as  well  as  softness  are  :— 

Magnesium  chloride.    Glycerine. 
Calcium  chloride.         Glucose. 

3.  Antiseptics. — Flour,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
common  ingredients  of  a  size,  is  a  material  excellently 
suited  for  the  nourishment  and  growth  of  many  forms 
of  fungus  or  mildew.  The  spores  of  mildew  are  to  be 
found  everywhere,  ready  to  spring  into  active  growth 
as  soon  as  the  conditions  are  favourable,  but  are 
capable  of  lying  dormant,  though  retaining  their 
vitality,  for  an  almost  indefinite  period  in  surround- 
ings not  suited  to  their  needs.  The  conditions 
necessary  for  the  germination  of  the  spores  on  a 
suitable  food  bed  are  moisture  and  warmth.  In  a 
cloth  sized  with  flour  and  softened  with  magnesium 
chloride  we  have  two  out  of  the  three  necessary 
factors.  In  a  cold  English  warehouse,  however,  the 
temperature  is  usually  too  low  for  the  spores ;  they 
remain  dormant  until  the  cloth  is  shipped  to  the  East, 
where  the  temperature  is  much  higher.  The  three 
conditions,  foodstuff  (flour),  moisture  (magnesium 
chloride)  and  warmth  are  all  now  present,  so  that 
when  the  goods  are  unpacked  they  are  found  to  be  in 
an  almost  unsaleable  condition.  In  order  to  overcome 
this  disastrous  state  of  affairs,  it  is  found  necessary  to 
make  a  further  addition  to  the  size — something  that 
will  act  as  a  poison  to  the  mildew  spores  and  prevent 
their  growth.  Such  poisons  are  termed  "  antiseptics." 
The  antiseptic  most  frequently  employed  is — 

Zinc  chloride. 

Other  antiseptics,  less  frequently  used  are- 
Zinc  sulphate.  Salicylic  acid. 
Carbolic  acid  (Phenol).       Thymol. 
Cresylic  acid.                      Formaldehyde. 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  STARCHES  AND  OTHER  AGGLUTINANTS 
GENERAL   PROPERTIES. 

THE  starches  of  commerce  form  white,  glistening 
powders,  odourless  and  tasteless. 

They  are  insoluble  in  cold  water,  alcohol,  chloroform, 
ether,  and  most  other  organic  liquids. 

Starch  is  very  hygroscopic,  and  when  dried  at  100°  C. 
may  lose  from  10  to  28  per  cent,  of  moisture.  This 
moisture  is  rapidly  regained  if  the  dry  starch  is 
exposed  to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

The  starches  are  all  chemically  identical,  being 
carbohydrates,  of  the  formula  (C6Hi005)w.  Under 
the  microscope,  starch  is  seen  to  consist  of  minute 
granules,  the  shapes  and  sizes  of  which  differ 
characteristically  in  the  different  starches.  The 
granules  are  composed  of  concentric  layers  of  starch 
cellulose  alternating  with  layers  of  a  substance  known 
as  granulose. 

Granulose  is  soluble  in  water,  but  the  starch  cellulose 
is  unaffected  by  cold  water,  and  thus  protects  the 
granulose  from  its  action. 

If  the  cellulose  layer  is  ruptured,  the  granulose 
absorbs,  water,  swells  to  many  times  its  original  bulk, 
and  finally  goes  into  solution.  The  cellulose  layers 
may  be  made  to  burst  by  the  action  of  hot  water,  each 
starch  having  a  definite  temperature  at  which  rupture 
of  the  granules  take  place. 


THE    STAKCHES 


Kind  of  Starch. 

Temperature  at 
which  Swelling 
begins. 

Commencement, 
of 
Gelatin  isation. 

Perfect 
Gelatinisation. 

Maize 

50°  0. 

55°  C. 

62-5°  C. 

Potato       .         „        .* 

46°  0. 

59°  C. 

62-5°  C. 

Rice  .... 

54°  0. 

59°  C. 

63-0°  C. 

Wheat       . 

60°  C. 

65°  C. 

67-5°  C. 

The  aqueous  solution  of  starch  may  be  prepared 
by  adding  boiling  water  to  starch  suspended  in  cold 
water,  or  the  granules  may  be  raptured  by  grind- 
ing them  in  a  mortar  with  sand,  extracting  the  mixture 
with  cold  water,  and  filtering.  The  aqueous  solution 
of  starch,  prepared  as  above,  gives  an  intense  blue 
colouration  with  a  solution  of  iodine. 

This  colour  is  given  by  no  other  bodies  but  starch. 
On  heating  the  colour  disappears,  but  returns  on 
cooling.  Alkalies  destroy  the  colour  permanently,  as 
they  combine  with  the  iodine.  The  blue  compound  of 
starch  and  iodine  is  insoluble  in  presence  of  neutral 
salts,  and  on  this  fact  is  based  a  method  for  the 
estimation  of  starch  in  solution. 

Estimation  of  Starch. — A  solution  of  starch,  con- 
taining approximately  one  gramme  per  IOC  c.c.  is 
carefully  neutralized.  To  50  c.c.  of  this  solution  add 
50  c.c.  of  a  10  per  cent,  solution  of  sodium  acetate. 
Warm  to  50°  C.  and  add  10  c.c.  of  decinormal  iodine 
solution.  Allow  to  settle.  Pour  on  to  a  dried  and 
weighed  filter  paper,  and  wash  with  3  per  cent,  sodium 
acetate  solution  till  free  from  iodine.  Wash  the  blue 
starch  compound  out  of  the  filter  with  rectified  spirit 
into  a  basin,  and  add  a  weak  alcoholic  solution  of 
caustic  potash  drop  by  drop  till  colourless.  Then 
acidify  with  alcohol  containing  a  little  glacial  acetic 
acid,  and  return  to  the  filter.  Wash  with  alcohol  on 


8  MATEKIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

the  filter  till  neutral.  Then  wash  twice  with  ether, 
dry  in  the  water  oven  and  weigh  the  residue  of  starch. 

If  a  watery  suspension  of  starch  he  stirred  with  a 
solution  of  caustic  soda  or  potash,  the  granules  gradu- 
ally swell  and  hurst,  yielding  a  glutinous  solution  quite 
different  in  character  from  that  produced  by  boiling  a 
suspension  of  the  same  strength. 

The  author  has  worked  out  a  method  for  the  com- 
parison of  starches,  based  on  this  reaction  (Vid.  Soc. 
Chem.  Ind.  Journal,  1907,  501)  :— 

3'5  grammes  of  starch  are  washed  into  a  250-c.c. 
graduated  flask,  with  the  aid  of  230  c.c.  of  cold  dis- 
tilled water.  15  c.c.  of  exactly  10  per  cent,  sodium 
hydroxide  solution  are  then  rapidly  run  in  from  a 
burette,  and  the  flask  is  filled  up  to  the  mark  with 
distilled  water  and  is  shaken  gently,  but  continu- 
ously, until  the  starch  has  gone  into  solution,  after 
which  it  is  allowed  to  stand  for  twelve  hours. 
Finally,  the  viscosity  of  the  solution  is  measured  in 
a  viscosimeter. 

In  order  to  obtain  concordant  results,  the  strength 
of  the  caustic  soda  solution  should  be  exactly  10  per 
cent.,  as  even  a  small  variation  will  give  a  different 
viscosity.  Every  time  that  a  delivery  of  starch  is  to 
be  compared  with  the  standard,  solutions  of  both 
standard  and  delivery  should  be  tested.  The  solutions 
should  at  all  times  be  agitated  as  little  as  possible,  and 
the  solution  that  has  run  through  the  viscosimeter 
should  not  be  used  again.  A  small  rise  in  tempera- 
ture causes  a  considerable  lowering  of  the  viscosity  ; 
consequently  care  must  be  taken  to  ensure  constant 
temperatures  during  the  time  of  the  tests.  A  strong 
solution  of  starch,  prepared  by  means  of  caustic  soda 
in  which  the  alkali  has  been  subsequently  neutralized 
by  the  careful  addition  of  sulphuric  acid,  is  sometimes 
placed  upon  the  market  as  a  secret  sizing  preparation. 
At  one  time  it  was  sold  under  the  name  of  Apparatine. 


THE    STAECHES  9 

If  a  solution  of  starch  is  treated  at  about  75°  C.  with 
a  small  amount  of  diastase  or  malt  extract,  it  gradually 
liquefies,  and  becomes  converted,  first  into  soluble 
starch,  then  into  dextrin,  and  finally,  one-half  of  the 
starch  is  converted  into  maltose. 


H^O  =  CeHjoOs  +  CisHaQii 
Starch  Dextrin       Maltose. 

A  somewhat  similar  change  is  produced  when  a 
starch  solution  is  boiled  with  a  small  quantity  of  a 
mineral  acid.  The  starch  paste  liquefies,  and  is  con- 
verted into  dextrin  and  finally  to  glucose. 


s  +  H20  = 
Starch  Glucose. 

Identification  of  the  Starches.—  When  starch  is  boiled 
with  water,  or  caused  to  go  into  solution  with  the  help 
of  an  alkali,  the  granules  are  ruptured,  and  it  is 
impossible  to  state  from  which  particular  starch  the 
solution  was  made.  If  the  starch  granules  have  not 
been  attacked,  they  may  be  recognized  under  the 
microscope,  and  identified  by  their  characteristic 
appearance  and  size.  The  granules  of  the  same 
starch  may  differ  widely  amongst  themselves  in  size, 
but  in  shape  and  general  appearance  they  are  very 
much  alike. 

The  markings  on  the  granules,  which  take  the  form 
of  concentric  rings  surrounding  a  central  dot  or  star- 
shaped  crack,  called  the  hilum,  are  very  difficult  to 
see  clearly  under  the  microscope  by  ordinary 
illumination.  They  should  be  viewed  by  polarised 
light. 

In  order  to  measure  the  diameter  of  the  granules,  a 
finely-ruled  grating  is  dropped  into  the  eyepiece  of 
the  microscope.  The  lines  on  the  eyepiece  micrometer 
are  visible  in  the  same  plane  as  the  object,  so  that  the 


10 


MATERIALS   USED   IN    SIZING 


apparent  diameter  of  the  granules  can  be  measured 
against  the  spaces  between  the  micrometer  lines. 

The  real  value  of  the  eyepiece  scale  is  then  found  by 
replacing  the  starch  slide  by  one  ruled  in  hundredth s  of 
a  millimetre. 

MICROSCOPIC  CHARACTERS  OF  STARCHES. 


Origin. 

Diameter  of 
Granules. 

Shape  of  Granules. 

Markings  and  other 
Characteristics. 

Wheat    . 

•002  to 

Lenticular. 

Concentric  rings    very 

•052  mm. 

faint,  hilum,  eccentric  : 

only  occasionally  visi- 

ble in  largest  granules. 

Granules  very   trans- 

Farina   . 

•05  to 

Irregularly 

parent. 
Hilum  a  dot  near  smaller 

•1  mm. 

ovate  ;        the 

end.    Kings  visible  on 

smaller  gran- 

larger granules. 

ules  more  cir- 

cular. 

Sago 

•02  to 

Obtusely  pear- 

Hilum  a  spot  or  crack 

•06  mm. 

shaped. 

at  narrow  end.     Kings 

few  and  faint. 

Maize 

•007  to 

Polygonal,  but 

Hilum,     well     denned, 

0-2  mm. 

corners      fre- 

star  -shaped.         Kings 

quently 

very    faint.       Surface 

rounded. 

granules  frequently  ir- 

regular. 

Eice 

•005  to 

Irregular  poly- 

Hilum and  rings  almost 

•008  mm. 

gons. 

invisible. 

Tapioca  . 

•008  to 

Some  circular, 

Hilum  central,  an  elon- 

•022 mm. 

some  suggest- 

gated    slit,    or     star- 

ing  small  sago 

shaped. 

granules. 

VALUATION  AND  APPLICATION  OF  THE  STARCHES. 

Wheat.  —  By  far   the   most   universally   employed 
agglutinant  is  the  starch  derived  from  the  wheat  grain. 


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THE   STARCHES  13 

It  is  generally  purchased  in  the  form  of  wheat  flour, 
the  average  composition  of  which  is  : — 

Starch  .  .  .         .70     per  cent. 

Gluten.  ...         .     10      „       „ 

Glucose  } 

Dextrin   [•  .  9      „       „ 

Cellulose] 

Ash       .  .         ....        *8  „ 

Moisture  .         .        r.         .     10*2  „       „ 

For  the  valuation  of  different  samples  of  flour,  the 
points  to  be  taken  into  account  are  — 

Colour.  Quality  of  paste. 

Moisture.  Freedom  from  other 

Ash.  starches. 
Gluten. 

Colour  is  best  seen  by  placing  a  few  grammes  of  the 
flour  on  a  sheet  of  black  glazed  paper  and  pressing  it 
out  into  a  flattened  heap.  If  heaps  of  two  brands  of 
flour  are  made  in  this  way  side  by  side,  very  small 
differences  of  shade  become  at  once  apparent. 

The  colour  of  the  pastes  made  for  the  consistency 
test  should  also  be  compared. 

Moisture  is  determined  by  drying  a  weighed  quantity 
in  a  water  oven  until  constant,  and  noting  the  loss  in 
weight.  As  flour,  especially  when  dry,  is  very  hygro- 
scopic, the  watch-glass  containing  the  flour  should 
always  be  covered  with  another  watch-glass  during 
weighing. 

Ash. — An  ordinary  flour  never  contains  more  than 
*8  per  cent,  of  ash.  Hence  any  sample  leaving  more  than 
this  amount  on  ignition  must  be  viewed  with  suspicion. 

Any  added  mineral  matter  may  be  isolated  from  the 
flour  as  follows : — A  weighed  quantity  of  the  flour 
(5  to  10  grammes)  is  poured  into  a  dry  separating 
funnel,  about  150  c.c.  of  dry  chloroform  are  then 


14  MATEEIALS  USED   IN   SIZING 

added,  and  the  mixture  well  shaken.  After  standing 
for  an  hour  or  two,  all  the  flour  will  have  risen  to  the 
top  of  the  chloroform,  whilst  the  added  mineral  matter 
will  be  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  funnel,  from 
whence  it  can  easily  be  removed  by  rapidly  opening 
the  tap,  and  further  examined  as  to  its  nature. 

Gluten. — Although  this  substance  is  frequently  re- 
moved by  fermentation  before  the  flour  is  made  into 
size,  yet  it  is  a  very  important  index  as  to  the  value  of 
the  flour  for  size  making.  Gluten  belongs  to  the  class 
of  nitrogenous  bodies  known  as  proteids,  and  contains 
nearly  15  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Hence  it  may  be  de- 
termined by  Kjeldahl's  method.  Gluten =Nx  6*7. 
Kjeldahl's  method  of  analysis  gives,  however,  no  in- 
dication as  to  the  quality  of  the  gluten,  and  so  should 
always  be  supplemented  by  the  washing  process. 

With  care  this  process  can  be  made  to  give  quite 
reliable  quantitative  results,  and  may,  indeed,  be  used 
instead  of  the  Kjeldahl  method.  Thirty  grammes  of 
flour  are  kneaded  into  a  dough  with  from  12  c.c.  to 
15  c.c.  of  water.  The  ball  of  dough  thus  formed  should 
be  quite  firm,  and  if  properly  made  may  be  freely 
handled  without  sticking  to  the  fingers.  If  any 
fragments  of  dough  are  seen  adhering  to  the  basin  in 
which  the  flour  was  mixed,  they  can  be  wiped  off  with 
the  main  ball.  The  ball  is  allowed  to  lie  on  a  glass 
plate  for  one  hour.  It  is  then  tied  up  in  a  piece  of 
fine  muslin  and  gently  worked  about  with  the  fingers 
in  a  large  basin  of  cold  water. 

The  water  soon  becomes  turbid,  owing  to  the  starch 
that  is  washed  out  of  the  dough,  and  should  be  con- 
stantly renewed  until  it  remains  quite  clear.  The 
muslin  is  now  untied,  and  when  unfolded  will  be  found 
to  contain  only  the  gluten  of  the  flour.  If  the  gluten 
is  of  good  quality  ifc  will  be  light  brown  or  straw 
coloured,  whilst  a  poor  quality  will  have  a  dull  and 
dirty  appearance.  The  good  gluten  will  feel  firm  and 


THE   STAECHES  15 

elastic.  It  can  easily  be  rolled  up  off  the  muslin  into 
a  coherent  mass.  In  this  condition  its  elastic  pro- 
perties are  very  well  marked.  A  had  gluten  can  only 
with  difficulty  be  separated  from  the  muslin.  It  tends 
to  pass  through  the  meshes  and  to  fall  away  in  frag- 
ments. The  mass  of  collected  gluten  is  crumbly  and 
"  short."  It  also  frequently  has  an  unpleasant  odour, 
whereas  a  good  gluten  smells  sweet,  like  a  fresh 
"  cottage"  loaf. 

The  moist  gluten  separated  from,  the  flour  as 
described,  is  weighed,  and  then  dried  in  the  water 
oven,  and  weighed  again.  The  percentage  of  moist 
gluten  found  will  vary  from  5  to  40  per  cent.,  and  this 
on  drying  will  lose  about  two-thirds  of  its  weight.  A 
flour  containing  about  30  per  cent,  of  moist  or  10  per 
cent,  of  dry  gluten  gives  the  best  results  in  sizing. 

APPLICATION. 

Before  being  made  into  size,  wheat  flour  is  usually 
prepared  by  "  steeping."  The  object  of  steeping  is  to 
loosen  all  the  individual  starch  granules  from  one 
another,  as  even  the  finest  flour  contains  numerous 
agglomerations  of  granules,  which  on  boiling  would 
form  gelatinous  lumps,  and  thus  give  rise  to  uneven 
places  in  the  yarn. 

The  flour  is  stirred  up  in  a  large  cistern  with  about 
its  own  weight  of  water,  and  the  mixture  left  to  itself 
for  a  length  of  time  varying  from  three  weeks  to  six 
months.  In  some  works  it  is  customary  to  run  off 
the  top  layer  of  water  after  the  first  violent  fermenta- 
tion has  come  to  an  end.  In  other  places  the  water  is 
never  changed. 

No  attempt  is  made  as  a  rule  to  control  the  progress 
of  the  fermentation,  although  the  character  of  the 
finished  product  depends  largely  on  the  co-ordinated 
activities  of  the  different  classes  of  bacteria  concerned. 


16  MATERIALS  USED   IN   SIZING 

Control  of  the  temperature  during  fermentation,  and 
encouragement  of  the  most  useful  organisms  by  the 
judicious  supply  of  chemicals  calculated  to  favour 
their  growth,  whilst  checking  the  objectionable  kinds, 
would  amply  repay  the  manufacturer. 

Bean  advocates  steeping  without  any  fermentation 
at  all.  He  argues  that  since  zinc  chloride  is  almost 
invariably  an  ingredient  of  the  final  mixing,  it  may  as 
well  be  added  to  the  water  in  which  the  flour  is  to  be 
steeped — at  the  rate  of  4  gallons  of  zinc  chloride  at 
102°  Tw.  to  25  gallons  of  water. 

No  bacteria  or  fungi  can  live  in  such  a  medium, 
consequently  no  chemical  changes  take  place  in  the 
flour  during  steeping,  and  the  final  product  is  always 
the  same,  although  of  course  it  differs  considerably 
from  the  product  in  which  fermentation  has  been 
allowed  to  take  place. 

After  the  completion  of  the  steeping  process,  the 
wet  mass  is  stirred  up  with  more  water  and  run  into 
the  size  beck,  where  it  is  boiled  up  and  mixed  with  the 
other  ingredients  of  the  size. 

FARINA  (Potato  Starch). 

Farina  is  obtained  from  potato  tubers,  100  Ibs.  of 
which  yield  from  15  to  16  Ibs.  of  dry  starch. 

The  tubers  are  first  carefully  washed,  and  then 
rasped  to  a  pulp  from  which  the  starch  is  separated 
by  a  process  of  sieving  and  settling.  Some  farina 
makers  prefer  to  slice  the  washed  tubers,  after  which 
they  are  piled  into  heaps  and  allowed  to  rot.  The 
rotted  pulp  is  then  washed  as  above. 

Deliveries  of  farina  should  be  examined  for  the 
amount  of  moisture  and  ash  that  they  contain. 

The  colour  should  be  compared  with  that  of  the 
standard :  and  also  the  viscosity  of  the  solution  by  the 
method  given  on  p.  8. 


THE    STARCHES  17 

A  paste  is  made  containing  7  grammes  of  farina  in 
100  c.c.  of  water.  The  stiffness  of  this  is  compared 
(by  feeling)  with  that  of  a  similar  paste  made  from 
the  standard.  The  two  pastes  are  then  allowed  to 
stand  covered  up,  side  by  side,  and  their  behaviour 
noted.  A  good  farina  will  gradually  dry  up,  whereas  a 
poor  quality  will  partially  liquefy  and  become  mouldy. 

The  moisture  may  be  determined  by  finding  the  loss 
in  weight  at  120°  C.,  or  by  the  method  of  Saare.  He 
places  100  grammes  of  the  starch  in  a  250  c.c.  flask, 
fills  with  water  at  17*5°  C.  and  weighs. 

Then  the  percentage  of  dry  starch  in  the  sample  is 
given  by  the  formula. 

Contents  of  flask  in  grams — capacity  of  flask  in  c.cs. 
-3987. 

The  moisture  varies  between  17  and  20  per  cent. 

The  percentage  of  ash  should  be  practically  nil. 

The  sample  should  also  be  examined  under  the 
microscope.  It  should  contain  nothing  but  farina 
granules.  Attention  should  be  paid  to  the  relative 
sizes  of  the  granules. 

In  German  farinas  there  is  much  less  difference 
between  the  sizes  of  the  granules  than  in  Dutch 
farinas. 

The  paste  made  from  a  farina  with  regular  sized 
granules  is  much  more  satisfactory  than  that  made 
from  farina  with  many-sized  granules. 

Whilst  the  former  yields  a  warp  that  remains  stiff 
for  a  long  time,  warps  sized  with  the  latter  soon  lose 
their  stiffness,  giving  "soft  beams,"  to  which  the 
weaver  objects  very  strongly. 

A  size  made  from  farina  should  be  used  up  at  once. 
It  cannot  be  kept  and  warmed  up  afresh,  as  this 
warming  up  causes  it  to  lose  some  of  its  adhesiveness. 

The  defect  may  be  minimized  by  adding  about  1  Ib. 
of  caustic  soda  to  every  100  Ibs.  of  farina. 

8.  0 


18  MATERIALS    USED   IN    SIZING 

USE  OF  FARINA  IN  SIZING. 

Farina  size  gives  a  characteristic  smoothness  and 
pliability  to  the  warp,  but  owing  to  the  stiffness  of  its 
paste  it  is  used  mainly  for  light  sizing. 

It  finds  some  application  in  the  very  heaviest 
classes  of  sizings,  where  it  is  used  in  admixture  with 
sago  and  corn  starch. 

SAGO. 

Sago  starch  is  derived  from  the  pith  of  various  palm 
trees,  the  principal  source  of  supply  being  the  sago 
palm  Metroxylon  Sago.  The  tree  grows  in  tropical  low- 
lying  marshes,  where  it  reaches  a  height  of  about  30  ft. 
Just  before  the  fruits  begin  to  form  the  stem  of  the 
tree  consists  of  a  woody  wail  about  two  inches  thick 
enclosing  a  dense  mass  of  spongy  cells  filled  with 
starch.  If  the  tree  is  allowed  to  flower,  all  the  starch 
is  used  up  in  the  formation  of  the  fruit,  so  that  the 
palm  is  usually  cut  down  just  before  maturity,  the 
stem  cut  into  sections,  and  the  pith  taken  out  and 
washed  upon  sieves  in  a  similar  manner  to  farina. 

Sago  should  be  examined  upon  delivery,  for  moisture, 
ash,  viscosity  of  solution  and  stiffness  of  the  10  per  cent, 
paste. 

The  moisture  varies  between  14  and  15  per  cent. 

If  the  sample  contains  more  than  a  trace  of  ash, 
this  should  be  examined  for  sodium  chloride.  Should 
this  be  found,  it  probably  indicates  damage  by  sea 
water. 

USE  OF  SAGO  IN  SIZING. 

Sago  yields  a  thinner  paste  than  any  other  starch, 
and  the  paste  is  remarkable  for  the  great  strength  it 
gives  to  the  yarn.  Moreover  it  does  not  tend  to  cause 
"  soft  beams  "  like  farina.  It  is  used  for  light  and  for 


THE   STARCHES  19 

the  heaviest  sizings.  For  heavy  sizes  the  starch  must 
be  boiled  for  a  long  time  or  the  yarn  will  be  too 
harsh. 

•25  to  *5  per  cent,  of  caustic  soda  may  be  added 
with  advantage.  Caustic  soda  deepens  the  colour,  but 
where  a  full  "  Egyptian  "  tint  is  desired,  this  will  not 
be  an  objectionable  feature. 

MAIZE,  OR  CORN  STARCH. 

Indian  Corn  (Zea  Mais)  when  ground  yields  a 
nitrogenous  flour,  the  average  composition  of  which  is 
as  follows : — 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Starch      .         .  53'8       Fat  .         .     4'7 

Gluten     .         .     8'2       Ash  .         .     4*8 

Cellulose.         .  13'4       Water  .         .  12'2 
Gum  and  Sugar     2*9 

The  starch  is  separated  from  the  flour  by  treatment 
with  very  weak  caustic  soda  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  action  of  these  substances  is  sometimes  supple- 
mented by  fermentation. 

The  pure  starch  contains  about  13  per  cent,  of 
moisture,  and  less  than  1  per  cent,  of  ash. 

Deliveries  should  be  examined  for  ash,  moisture, 
colour,  viscosity  and  thickness  of  paste.  The  paste 
given  by  corn  starch  is  characterised  by  being  thick 
and  opaque  even  when  hot. 

USE  OF  CORN  STARCH  IN  SIZING. 

Corn  Starch  is  seldom  used  alone  in  sizing,  as  it 
makes  the  yarn  too  harsh  and  brittle. 

It  is  much  employed  for  medium  and  heavy  mixings, 
together  with  wheat  flour,  as  it  gives  a  harder  and 
firmer  feel  to  the  cloth  than  wheat  flour  alone. 

The  starch  must  be  well  boiled  before  use,  as  it  is 

c2 


20  MATEKIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

very  apt  to  contain  small  agglomerations  of  starch 
grains  and  gluten.  If  these  get  on  to  the  cloth  un- 
broken, the  gluten,  being  a  good  fungus  food,  may 
give  rise  to  spots  of  mildew,  whilst  the  rest  of  the 
cloth  remains  unattacked. 

Size  made  with  corn  starch,  like  sago,  does  not 
readily  liquefy,  nor  does  it  lose  its  strength-giving 
qualities  when  on  the  yarn. 

TAPIOCA. 

Tapioca  is  a  prepared  form  of  cassava  or  arrowroot 
starch.  It  is  obtained  from  the  roots  of  a  tropical 
plant  (Manihot  Utilissima).  Tapioca  forms  a  pleasant 
and  digestible  ingredient  of  puddings  and  soups,  but 
as  a  sizing  material  it  is  best  avoided  altogether.  It 
gives  a  very  thin  paste,  which  rapidly  loses  strength, 
and,  owing  to  the  presence  commonly  of  nitrogenous 
matters,  is  decidedly  liable  to  give  rise  to  mildew 
growths. 

RICE  STARCH. 

The  rice  plant  (Oryza  Sativa)  has  been  cultivated 
from  time  immemorial  in  India  and  China,  and  the 
grain  is  largely  used  in  those  countries  as  an  article 
of  food.  It  is  an  annual  grass,  which  occurs  in  many 
varieties,  some  growing  best  in  swampy  ground  or  in 
shallow  water,  others  on  dry  hill-sides. 

The  ground  seeds  contain — 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Starch       .         .  78'2  Proteids         .       6'8 

Fats          .         .       '7  Ash       .         .         -8 

Cellulose  .         .     3*1  Water    .         .       9'9 
Gum  and  Sugar      *5 

In  order  to  separate  the  starch  from  the  other 
ingredients,  the  grain  is  ground  and  treated  with  weak 


THE   STARCHES  21 

caustic  soda  or  hydrochloric  acid.  After  the  first 
treatment  the  product  is  dried,  ground,  and  treated 
again  in  order  to  remove  all  the  nitrogenous  matter. 

USE  OF  RICE  STARCH  IN  SIZING. 

Rice  is  little  used  in  ordinary  sizing  except  to  give 
a  peculiar  harsh  feel  to  medium  and  heavy  sized 
goods. 

It  requires  prolonged  boiling  before  it  can  be  used. 
It  is  then  generally  mixed  with  about  eight  times  its 
weight  of  wheat  flour.  It  finds  most  employment  in 
laundries,  for  the  starching  of  cuffs  and  collars. 

SOLUBLE  STARCH. 

Soluble  starch  is  prepared  from  maize,  farina  or 
tapioca  by  a  mild  process  of  dextrination. 

The  usual  treatment  employed  is  to  moisten  the 
starch  with  very  dilute  nitric,  acetic  or  formic  acid 
and  to  dry  carefully  at  180°  C.  Sodium  or  calcium 
hypochlorite  is  also  used. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  a  uniform  product,  even 
when  the  greatest  care  is  exercised  over  the  control  of 
the  operations.  Consequently  all  deliveries  should  be 
very  carefully  tested  against  the  standard. 

The  moisture  and  ash  must  be  determined.  But  the 
most  important  test  is  the  nature  of  the  paste  which 
the  sample  yields  when  mixed  with  water. 

Ten  to  20  grammes  of  the  sample  are  stirred  up 
with  25  c.c.  of  cold  water,  and  75  c.c.  of  boiling  water 
added,  with  constant  stirring.  The  mixture  is  then 
heated  on  a  boiling  water  bath  for  a  definite  time,  and 
the  appearance  of  the  solution  compared  with  the 
standard,  both  when  hot  and  after  it  has  been  allowed 
to  stand  covered  overnight. 

Soluble  starch  may  also  be  prepared  in  solution  by 
treating  starch  paste  with  diastase  or  malt  extract. 


22  MATEEIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

The  temperature  and  time  of  action  must  be  care- 
fully controlled.  The  action  of  the  diastase  can  be 
stopped  at  any  moment  by  raising  the  temperature  of 
the  mass  to  the  boiling  point  or  by  rapidly  stirring  in 
a  little  alkali. 

USE  OF  SOLUBLE  STARCH  IN  SIZING. 

Soluble  starch  is  employed  chiefly  as  a  size  for 
strong  yarns  where  it  is  only  necessary  to  lay  the 
fibres,  or  where  it  is  important  that  the  colour  should 
not  be  covered  up,  as  it  would  be  by  the  more  opaque 
coating  produced  by  a  starch  size. 

A  size  made  with  soluble  starch  is  not  very  adhesive, 
and  gives  little  strength  to  the  yarn,  unless  used  in  a 
very  concentrated  form.  Further,  the  extra  weighing 
can  be  much  more  cheaply  obtained  by  means  of  a 
mixture  of  china  clay  and  starch. 

It  is,  however,  employed  to  some  extent  for  thinning 
down  very  heavy  mixings. 

DEXTRIN,  OR  BRITISH  GUM. 

Dextrin  is  obtained  from  starch  in  the  dry  form 
by  roasting  it  to  250°  C.  or  by  moistening  the  starch 
with  dilute  nitric  acid,  drying  and  heating  to  150°  C. 

In  solution  it  is  obtained  by  acting  on  a  starch 
paste  with  diastase,  or  by  boiling  with  a  mineral 
acid  until  the  product  no  longer  gives  a  blue  colour 
with  iodine. 

Dextrin  is  sold  as  a  powder  having  a  characteristic 
odour,  and  varying  in  colour  from  white  to  brown, 
according  to  the  amount  of  roasting  to  which  it  has 
been  subjected.  No  hard  and  fast  line  can  be  drawn 
between  dextrin  and  soluble  starch.  A  highly- 
converted  brown  dextrin  will  contain  about  83  ^er  cent, 
of  actual  dextrin  and  4  per  cent,  of  glucose. 


THE    STAECHES  23 

White  dextrines  closely  resemble  soluble  starches, 
and  have  been  so  little  acted  upon  in  the  process  of 
manufacture  that  the  starch  granules  are  readily 
recognisable  under  the  microscope. 


CHEMICAL  EXAMINATION  OF  DEXTRINES. 

The  moisture  and  ash  are  determined  in  the  usual 
way.  Dextrin  and  sugar  are  determined  by  shaking 
up  a  known  weight  of  the  sample  with  a  definite 
volume  of  cold  water,  and  allowing  the  mixture  to 
settle.  The  dextrin  and  sugar  go  into  solution, 
whilst  starch  and  soluble  starch  remain  undissolved. 

A  known  volume  of  the  clear  solution  is  pipetted 
off,  and  evaporated  to  dryness  on  the  water  bath.  This 
gives  the  weight  of  dextrin  and  sugar. 

In  another  portion  of  the  solution  the  dextrin  is 
determined  by  precipitation  with  about  ten  times  its 
volume  of  95  per  cent,  alcohol.  Ten  cubic  centimetres 
of  the  solution  are  introduced  into  a  dry,  weighed 
flask,  and  mixed  with  100  c.c.  of  alcohol.  The  dextrin 
is  precipitated,  and  after  shaking  and  allowing  to  stand 
for  a  time,  clots  together  and  sticks  to  the  walls  of 
the  flask.  The  alcohol  can  then  be  poured  off  and  the 
contents  of  the  flask  dried  and  weighed. 

A  convenient  way  of  drying  the  precipitated  dextrin 
is  that  used  by  the  author.  The  flask  is  closed  with  a 
doubly-perforated  cork  through  which  pass  two  glass 
tubes,  one  going  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  flask. 
The  longer  tube  is  connected  to  the  gas  supply,  and 
the  shorter  to  a  Bunsen  burner.  The  gas  is  turned 
on,  the  Bunsen  burner  placed  under  a  water  bath  and 
the  flask  in  the  water  bath.  Drying  then  proceeds 
very  rapidly  after  the  water  has  once  come  to  the  boil. 

The  proportions  of  starch  and  soluble  starch  may  be 
confirmed  by  dissolving  a  weighed  quantity  of  the 


24  MATERIALS  USED   IN   SIZING 

sample  in  boiling  water  and  precipitating  with  iodine 
as  described  on  p.  7. 

An  examination  of  the  character  of  the  solution 
formed  by  the  sample  should  also  not  be  omitted. 

Fifty  grammes  are  weighed  out  into  a  basin  and 
stirred  up  with  100  c.c.  boiling  water.  The  solution 
is  then  stirred  on  a  boiling  water  bath  for  a  definite 
time,  and  its  colour  and  appearance  noted  both  when 
hot  and  after  standing  over-night.  Care  must  be 
taken  when  adding  the  water  to  stir  well,  so  that  no 
lumps  are  formed. 

Use  of  Dextrin  in  Sizing. — Dextrin  finds  only  a 
limited  application  in  sizing,  and  then  it  is  mainly 
used  in  pure  sizes,  in  admixture  with  farina  or  sago. 


GUM  TRAGACANTH  (Gum  Dragon). 

Gum  Tragacanth  is  an  exudation  from  the  stems 
of  the  various  species  of  Astragalus  trees  growing 
mainly  in  Asia  Minor.  Formerly  only  the  natural 
exudation  was  collected,  but  now  the  lower  portions  of 
the  stems  are  "  tapped  "  like  rubber  trees,  the  incisions 
being  made  near  the  roots.  It  occurs  in  commerce  as 
tough,  horny,  twisted  flakes,  yellow  or  dull  white  in 
colour.  It  is  tasteless  and  odourless,  and  is  not  acted 
upon  by  alcohol  or  ether. 

When  dried  in  a  water  oven,  it  loses  about  14  per 
cent,  of  water ;  it  becomes  brittle  and  can  then  be 
easily  powdered.  When  heated  with  water  it  swells 
up  into  clear  gelatinous  masses,  which  on  prolonged 
boiling,  go  into  solution,  with  the  formation  of  a 
peculiarly  ropy  mucilage.  Even  a  3  per  cent,  solu- 
tion is  almost  too  thick  to  be  poured  out  of  an 
ordinary  flask. 

The  solution  is  turned  blue  by  iodine,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  small  amount  of  starch.  With  caustic 


THE    STAECHES  25 

soda  it  gives  a  deep  yellow  colour.  It  is  precipitated 
by  alcohol. 

The  analysis  of  a  sample  of  gum  tragacanth  is 
restricted  to  a  determination  of  the  asJi,  and  a  com- 
parison of  the  viscosity  and  colour  of  the  solution  with 
that  given  by  the  standard.  To  prepare  the  solutions 
the  samples  are  dried  in  the  water  oven  and  finely 
powdered.  Ten  grammes  of  the  powder  are  placed  in 
a  500-c.c.  flask,  250  c.c.  of  cold  water  are  added,  and 
the  mixture  well  shaken  until  all  lumps  and  air 
bubbles  are  removed.  The  flasks  are  then  allowed 
to  stand  overnight.  Next  morning  the  contents  are 
shaken  up,  and  the  flasks  are  kept  for  at  least  six 
hours  in  a  boiling  water  bath,  being  well  shaken  from 
time  to  time  to  prevent  the  formation  of  lumps. 
Finally  they  are  filled  with  boiling  water,  well  mixed 
and  allowed  to  cool.  It  is  not  advisable  to  fill  the 
flasks  up  again  to  the  mark,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
evenly  mixing  the  stiff  solutions  with  more  water. 

Use  of  Giun  Tragacanth  in  Sizing. — The  material 
must  be  soaked  overnight  in  cold  water  and  then  boiled 
with  open  steam  until  smooth,  after  which  the  solution 
is  carefully  strained  from  any  small  lumps  that  have 
failed  properly  to  gelatinise  and  dissolve.  Any  such 
particles  left  in  the  size  will  cause  trouble  by  sticking 
to  the  yarn  and  the  rollers.  They  may  also  give  rise 
to  the  local  development  of  mildew.  Gum  tragacanth 
is  not  much  used  for  sizing.  Its  cost  is  rather  high 
and  the  preparation  difficult.  Also  the  feel  produced  on 
the  cloth  does  not  find  favour  amongst  manufacturers. 

GUM  TRAGASOL. 

This  is  a  preparation  made  from  the  seed  of  the 
locust  bean  or  carob  tree,  by  the  Gum  Tragasol 
Company  of  Hooton.  The  cotyledons  alone  are  used. 
Gum  tragasol  comes  into  the  market  as  a  thick,  clear, 


26  MATEEIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

semi-gelatinous  mass,  light  brown  or  white  in  colour, 
containing  about  96  per  cents,  of  water.  It  is  neutral 
in  its  reaction,  tasteless  and  odourless. 

It  is  not  directly  soluble  in  water,  but  can  be  made 
to  dissolve  in  any  desired  proportions  by  a  special 
treatment.  The  required  quantity  of  the  gum  is 
placed  in  a  vessel  fitted  with  mechanical  stirrers  and 
well  stirred  for  about  half  an  hour.  Cold  water  is 
then  added  gradually,  equal  in  amount  to  the  gum 
taken.  A  thick  syrupy  liquor  results,  which  is  freely 
miscible  with  more  water.  The  material  is  used  in 
admixture  with  starches. 

ICELAND  Moss. 

Cetraria  Islandica  is  a  lichen  with  an  erect  foli- 
aceous  habit,  giving  it  the  appearance  of  a  moss.  It 
is  of  common  occurrence  amongst  the  mountain 
ranges  of  the  North,  particularly  in  Iceland.  It  is 
also  found  in  North  Wales  and  in  Scotland.  The 
thin,  light  grey  sheets  contain  nearly  70  per  cent,  of 
lichenin,  a  body  chemically  very  similar  to  starch,  but 
without  any  granular  structure. 

IRISH  Moss  (CARRAGEEN). 

This  is  a  seaweed  (Chondrus  Crispus)  which  grows 
plentifully  along  the  rocky  coasts  of  Europe  and  North 
America. 

It  is  collected,  washed  and  dried  and  then  forms 
horny,  yellowish  sheets,  which  contain  about  55  per 
cent,  of  a  mucilaginous  body,  10  per  cent,  of  albuminoids 
and  1 5  per  cent,  of  mineral  matter. 

Use  of  Iceland  and  Irish  Moss  in  Sizing. — The 
material  is  allowed  to  steep  in  warm  water  for  twenty- 
four  hours,  after  which  it  is  boiled  until  dissolved, 
either  with  or  without  the  addition  of  a  little  caustic 


THE   STABCHES  27 

soda.  A  thick  mucilage  is  formed  with  twenty  to 
thirty  times  its  weight  of  water,  which  has  to  be 
carefully  strained  from  lumps  before  use. 

GELATINE,  GLUE  AND  BONE  SIZE. 

Gelatine,  of  which  glue  and  bone  size  are  impure 
varieties,  does  not  exist  as  such  in  nature. 

It  is  prepared  by  boiling  animal  tissues  (horns, 
bones  or  hides),  with  water  under  pressure,  when  the 
collagen  or  ossein  is  decomposed,  and  goes  into  solution 
as  gelatine. 

The  following  analysis  gives  an  approximation  to 
the  composition  of  ordinary  gelatine  : — 

Per  cent. 

Carbon  .  .  :  . '  .  .  50'2 
Hydrogen  .  .  :  .  ,  •'  >  6'7 
Nitrogen  .  ."  .  T"  .  17*9 
Oxygen  .  .  .-  ...  •  .  24'6 
Sulphur  .  .  .  •  •  *4 

"  Pure "  gelatine  is  an  amorphous,  transparent, 
brittle  substance.  It  has  no  colour,  smell  or  taste. 
When  heated  it  softens  and  swells  up,  the  decomposition 
products  possessing  a  very  disagreeable  odour.  The 
dry  material  is  exceedingly  stable,  but  when  moist  or 
in  solution  it  undergoes  putrefaction  with  great 
readiness. 

In  cold  water  gelatine  swells  up,  absorbing  from  five 
to  ten  times  its  weight  of  water.  The  swollen  gelatine 
melts  at  about  80°C.  to  form  a  more  or  less  viscous 
liquid  with  great  adhesive  power.  Glue,  which  con- 
tains a  proportion  of  hydrolysed  gelatine,  or  gelatose, 
at  first  swells  up  in  water,  but  then  the  gelatose  dis- 
solves out,  leaving  a  gelatinous  or  slimy  residue, 
according  to  the  purity  of  the  sample. 

On  cooling,  the  solution  gelatinises  if  it  contains 
more  than  1  per  cent,  of  gelatine.  But  the  gelatinising 


28  MATEKIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

power  and  adhesiveness  are  gradually  destroyed  by 
repeated  heating  or  prolonged  boiling.  If  a  small 
amount  of  a  soluble  bichromate  or  formaldehyde  is 
added  to  a  dilute  solution,  the  viscosity  of  the  solution 
is  increased,  whilst  stronger  solutions  are  coagulated. 
After  drying,  the  gelatine  which  has  been  treated  with 
bichromate  or  formaldehyde  becomes  insoluble  in 
water,  and  can  only  be  made  soluble  again  by  pro- 
longed boiling  with  an  alkali.  In  the  case  of  bichro- 
mates the  insolubilising  action  is  much  hastened  by 
exposure  of  the  dried  gelatine  to  light.  Chrome  alum 
has  a  similar  effect  to  formaldehyde. 

Gelatine  is  precipitated  from  its  solutions  by  alcohol, 
being  totally  insoluble  in  10  per  cent,  alcohol  at  0°C. 

It  is  insoluble  in  ether,  chloroform,  benzine,  carbon 
bisulphide  and  oils.  It  is  soluble  in  acetic  acid,  but 
the  solution  does  not  gelatinise  on  cooling. 

Tannic  acid  also  precipitates  gelatine,  but  the  pre- 
cipitate formed  is  not  of  constant  composition. 

No  precipitate  is  formed  by  gelatine  on  the  addition 
of  solutions  of  mineral  or  organic  acids,  or  most  metallic 
salts.  It  is,  however,  precipitated  on  saturation  with 
ammonium,  magnesium  or  zinc  sulphate. 

Isinglass  is  a  particularly  pure  form  of  gelatine, 
made  from  the  swimming  bladders  of  certain  fish. 

Size  is  a  very  impure  gelatine,  usually  sold  in 
solution.  It  is  obtained  from  gelatinous  materials  by 
boiling  under  pressure,  after  a  previous  treatment  at 
a  lower  temperature  for  the  extraction  of  high  grade 
gelatine. 

Valuation  of  Gelatine. — The  colour,  transparency 
and  hardness  of  the  sample  should  be  noted.  The 
solution  in  water  should  be  neutral  to  litmus,  and 
must  not  possess  a  disagreeable  odour. 

A  weighed  amount  of  the  sample  is  allowed  to  soak 
in  cold  water  for  twenty-four  hours.  A  bad  sample 
will  partially  or  wholly  dissolve,  whilst  a  good  sample 


THE    STAECHES  29 

will  absorb  from  five  to  ten  times  its  weight  of  water. 
When  fully  swollen,  the  fragments  should  be  wiped 
dry  and  rapidly  weighed. 

Isinglass  will  yield  on  ignition  about  *5  per  cent,  of 
ash,  a  good  gelatine  about  1'5  per  cent.  The  ash 
from  a  glue  is  generally  somewhat  more  than  this. 

A  bone  glue  may  be  distinguished  from  a  hide  glue 
by  the  behaviour  of  its  ash  during  ignition.  The  ash 
of  a  hide  glue  remains  as  a  fine  powder,  whilst  that 
from  a  bone  glue  fuses.  The  adhesiveness  of  a 
gelatine  is  measured  by  the  viscosity  of  its  solution. 
Thirty  grammes  are  allowed  to  soak  overnight  in 
200  c.c.  of  cold  water.  The  swollen  mass  is  then 
heated  for  a  definite  length  of  time  on  the  water  bath, 
and  its  viscosity  determined  at  35°  or  40°  C.  After 
this  constant  has  been  determined,  the  solution  is 
poured  into  a  shallow  basin  and  allowed  to  remain 
exposed  to  the  air.  A  good  quality  of  gelatine  will  soon 
gelatinise,  and  gradually  dry  up.  A  poor  quality  may 
gelatinise  for  a  time,  but  it  liquefies  again  after  a  few 
days,  owing  to  putrefactive  changes. 

A  good  sample  of  gelatine  or  glue  should  be  almost 
free  from  fat. 

The  amount  of  fat  present  may  be  determined  as 
follows  : — Twenty  grammes  of  the  sample  are  dissolved 
in  150  c.c.  of  water  and  10  c.c.  of  strong  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  solution  is  boiled  under  an  inverted  con- 
denser for  four  hours  (see  Fig.  1),  cooled  and  shaken  up 
with  petroleum  ether  in  a  separating  funnel  three  times. 
The  petrol  is  introduced  into  a  dry  weighed  flask,  and 
evaporated  off  on  the  water  bath,  when  the  fat  remains 
behind  and  is  weighed. 

Use  of  Gelatine  in  Sizing. — The  various  grades  of 
gelatine  are  used  in  sizing  where  a  particularly  hard 
feel  is  desired.  Their  use  is  to  be  deprecated,  however, 
owing  to  the  readiness  with  which  even  the  best 
qualities  give  rise  to  mildew. 


30 


MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 


•  i  i  i  i  •  i  •  i  i 


CASEIN. 

Dried  Casein,  as  met 
with  in  commerce, 
forms  a  white  or  yellow- 
ish powder.  It  is 
somewhat  hygroscopic 
and  swells  up  in  hot 
water,  but  does  not  dis- 
solve. It  dissolves,  how- 
ever, in  dilute  alkalies, 
and  in  acids  containing 
not  more  than  *1  per 
cent,  calculated  as  hydro- 
chloric acid.  The 
solution  in  acids  is 
precipitated  by  the  ad- 
dition of  more  acid,  and 
on  neutralisation  with 
alkali.  The  alkaline 
solution  is  not  coagu- 
lated on  boiling,  but  is 
precipitated  on  the 
addition  of  salt,  calcium 
chloride  or  magnesium 
sulphate.  The  precipitate 
will  dissolve  again  in 
alkali  after  the  metallic 
salt  has  been  washed 
out.  But  if  the  pre- 
cipitate is  treated  with 
alcohol  it  becomes  per- 
manently insoluble.  If 
an  ammoniacal  solution 
of  casein  is  poured  upon 
a  sheet  of  glass  and 
allowed  to  dry,  it  forms 


FIG.  i. 


THE   STAKCHE8  31 

a  transparent  film  which  is  quite  insoluble  in  water, 
but  dissolves  slowly  in  alkali.  If,  however,  lime  is 
added  to  the  ammoniacal  solution,  the  film  is  no  longer 
soluble  even  in  alkalies.  An  alkaline  solution  of 
casein,  on  the  addition  of  a  little  formaldehyde, 
remains  clear  if  not  too  concentrated,  but  is  coagulated 
by  an  excess  of  this  reagent.  The  clear  solution  also 
leaves  a  transparent  film  on  drying,  which  is,  however, 
quite  insoluble.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  utilise 
this  property  for  the  preparation  of  artificial  silk,  but 
hitherto  without  much  success.  The  addition  of 
casein  to  a  sizing  mixture  produces  effects  resembling 
those  due  to  gelatine.  It  is  consequently  not  much 
used. 


CHAPTER  II 


WEIGHTING    MATERIALS 

THE  ingredients  most  commonly  added  to  a  size 
mixing  to  give  weight  and  body  to  the  cloth  are- 
China  Clay.  Barium  Sulphate. 
Epsom  Salts.  Sodium  Sulphate. 
Calcium  Sulphate. 

CHINA  CLAY  (KAOLIN). 

China  Clay  is  obtained  mainly  from  Devon  and 
Cornwall,  where  it  has  been  formed  by  the  slow 
weathering  of  felspar.  The  crude  clay  is  mixed  with 
a  large  bulk  of  water,  and  separated  into  different 
grades  entirely  by  settling.  It  is  essentially  a  silicate 
of  aluminium  with  the  composition — 

Per  cent. 

Silica 45—47 

Alumina 40 — 41 

Water 11—12 

The  clay  comes  into  the  market  as  large  crumbly 
lumps,  which  contain  from  10  to  20  per  cent, 
of  moisture.  This  moisture  can  be  removed  at  a 
temperature  below  100°  C.  without  altering  the 
properties  of  the  clay.  The  water  which  forms  an 
essential  part  of  the  silicate  molecule  is  only  lost  at  a 
red  heat,  and  its  removal  quite  changes  the  physical 
properties  of  the  clay. 


WEIGHTING  MATERIALS  83 

The  criteria  by  which  a  clay  is  valued  are- 
Feel.  Absence  of  Calcium  Oxide. 
Colour.  „        „   Iron  Oxide. 
Absence  of  Grit. 

The  jcel  of  a  good  clay  cannot  be  described.  The 
experienced  man  alone  is  competent  to  judge  of  this. 
Any  difference  between  the  feel  of  two  samples  is  best 
detected  by  grinding  equal  weights  of  each  with  suffi- 
cient water  to  make  a  thick  cream  or  paste.  The 
pastes  are  then  placed  in  watch  glasses  and  pressed 
with  the  finger  tips.  The  colour  should  be  pure  white, 
free  from  any  tint  of  yellow,  blue  or  grey.  Samples 
to  be  compared  are  ground  fine  in  a  mortar,  and  made 
into  little  flattened  heaps  side  by  side  on  a  sheet  of 
black  glazed  paper. 

Clays  are  frequently  artificially  coloured  in  order  to 
make  them  a  brighter  white,  or  to  mask  a  natural  yellow 
tone.  If  the  presence  of  colouring  matter  is  suspected 
the  clay  is  ground  up  with  water  to  a  thick  cream,  and 
four  watch  glasses  are  filled  with  this.  A  little  caustic 
soda,  acidified  bleaching  powder  solution,  and  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid  are  added  to  the  contents  of  three  of 
the  watch  glasses,  and  any  alteration  from  the  tone  of 
the  untreated  portion  noted .  An  alteration  produced  by 
caustic  soda  or  chlorine  denotes  the  addition  of  an 
artificial  dyestuff;  a  change  in  the  acidified  sample 
the  probable  presence  of  ultramarine  blue. 

Grit  is  detected  by  placing  some  of  the  clay,  mixed 
with  water  into  a  cream,  between  two  sheets  of  glass, 
and  moving  them  over  each  other. 

A  gritty  sample  should  be  at  once  rejected,  as  it  will 
certainly  lead  to  broken  threads. 

Calcium  Oxide  will  be  present  as  carbonate. 

The  clay  is  shaken  up  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid 
and  filtered.  The  clear  filtrate  is  neutralised  with 
ammonia,  and  a  little  ammonium  oxalate  added.  A 

s.  D 


34  MATEEIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

white  precipitate  of  calcium  oxalate  denotes  the 
presence  of  lime  in  the  sample.  This  points  either  to 
careless  preparation  or  to  wilful  adulteration. 

Oxide  of  Iron. — China  clay  always  contains  a  trace 
of  iron,  but  a  sample  which  has  been  stirred  with  a 
little  hydrochloric  acid,  followed  by  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide,  should  only  become  tinted  a  light  blue.  A 
sample  becoming  deeply  coloured  should  be  rejected, 
as  it  may  easily  give  rise  to  trouble  in  the  subsequent 
process  of  bleaching.  In  order  to  make  this  test 
quantitative,  equal  weights  of  the  clays  to  be  com- 
pared are  mixed  with  equal  volumes  of  strong,  pure 
hydrochloric  acid  and  allowed  to  stand  for  one  hour. 
They  are  then  diluted  with  equal  volumes  of  water, 
and  a  few  drops  of  potassium  ferrocyanide  added. 
The  colour  produced  is  compared  with  that  of  a  clay 
which  has  been  washed  free  from  iron,  and  has  then 
had  a  known  percentage  of  iron  added  to  it. 

THE  USE  OF  CHINA  CLAY  IN  SIZING. 

Clay  is  mixed  with  starch  paste  in  the  preparation 
of  size  mixings  in  order  to  give  in  the  first  place  a 
certain  desirable  "  feel  "  to  the  cloth.  It  has  also  the 
property  of  making  a  light  and  flimsily-woven  cloth 
appear  full  and  solid.  It  is  cheap,  and  free  from 
colour,  so  that  it  can  be  added  to  almost  any  extent 
that  may  be  thought  desirable.  Before  being  made 
up  into  a  mixing  the  clay  is  generally  put  into  a  mill, 
where  it  is  agitated  with  boiling  water  for  some  hours. 
This  operation  is  intended  to  break  down  all 
lumps  and  to  separate  the  clay  into  fine  particles. 
Bean  is  of  the  opinion  that  this  operation  would  be 
much  facilitated  by  first  drying  and  grinding  the  clay 
to  a  fine  powder.  Clays  differ  so  widely  in  the 
feel  that  they  produce,  that  it  is  a  sound  rule 
for  a  manufacturer  never  to  change  his  brand  of  clay 


WEIGHTING  MATERIALS  35 

without  very  good  cause.  It  is  a  matter  of  the 
greatest  difficulty  to  match  with  a  new  clay  the  exact 
effect  of  a  previous  mixing. 

EPSOM  SALTS  (MAGNESIUM  SULPHATE.     MgS04.7H20). 

Magnesium  Sulphate  forms  colourless  crystals,  which 
are  readily  soluble  in  their  own  weight  of  cold  water. 
The  only  impurities  that  need  be  looked  for  are  iron 
oxide  and  magnesium  chloride.  The  solution  should 
remain  colourless  on  the  addition  of  potassium  ferro- 
cyanide,  and  should  give  no  precipitate  of  silver 
chloride  on  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  and  silver 
nitrate. 

Magnesium  chloride  is  frequently  added  to  size 
mixings  as  we  shall  see  later,  but  it  is  a  dangerous 
substance,  and  is  therefore  better  only  added  know- 
ingly as  such.  If  the  Epsom  salts  are  to  be  used  for 
finishing,  it  is  imperative  that  the  chloride  should  be 
absent. 

Epsom  salts  are  used  chiefly  in  ball  sizing,  and  for 
mercerised  yarns,  where  it  is  desired  to  add  some 
weight  without  detracting  from  the  appearance  of 
the  yarn. 

GLAUBEES   SALT  (SODIUM   SULPHATE.    Na2S04.10H20). 

As  a  sizing  ingredient  this  closely  resembles 
magnesium  sulphate  in  its  application  and  proper- 
ties. It  should  be  free  from  iron  salts,  and  neutral  to 
litmus  paper. 

It  may  be  noted  that  sodium  sulphate  should  not 
be  used  in  admixture  with  calcium  chloride.  These 
substances  will  react  together  forming  chloride  of 
sodium  and  insoluble,  non-deliquescent  calcium  sul- 
phate. As  the  addition  of  calcium  chloride  is  made 
solely  on  account  of  its  hygroscopic  property,  which 
is  lost  when  the  calcium  chloride  is  converted  into 

P  2 


36  MATERIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

the  sulphate,  it  is  clear  that  the  character  of  the  mix- 
ing would  be  entirely  destroyed  by  the  presence  of 
any  sodium  sulphate. 

CALCIUM  SULPHATE  (CaS04.2H20). 

Calcium  Sulphate  is  a  white  crystalline  powder 
almost  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily  soluble  in  hot, 
strong  hydrochloric  acid,  from  which  it  separates  out 
again  on  cooling  in  the  form  of  fine  silky  needles  and 
lustrous  plates.  Two  varieties  are  used  in  sizing. 

That  which  is  sold  in  the  form  of  a  dry  powder  is 
usually  made  by  grinding  the  natural  rock.  Under 
the  microscope  it  has  the  appearance  of  glassy  plates 
and  lumps  very  irregular  in  outline. 

The  impurities  to  be  looked  for  are  iron  oxide  and 
calcium  carbonate. 

The  second  variety  is  usually  sold  in  the  form  of  a 
stiff  paste,  containing  about  30  per  cent,  of  moisture. 
It  has  a  more  unctuous  feel  than  the  ground  rock,  and 
frequently  shows  a  satin-like  lustre.  It  is  usually 
prepared  by  the  precipitation  of  calcium  chloride  with 
sulphuric  acid.  Hence  if  the  precipitate  has  not  been 
properly  washed  it  will  contain  either  free  acid  or 
'  calcium  chloride.  It  may  also  contain  iron  oxide. 

Iron  Oxide  and  Calcium  Chloride  are  determined  in 
the  usual  way,  with  potassium  ferrocyanide  and  silver 
nitrate  respectively. 

To  estimate  the  free  acid,  about  10  grammes  of  the 
sample  are  weighed  into  a  flask,  100  c.c.  of  distilled 
water  are  added,  and  the  mixture  titrated  with  N/10 
caustic  soda,  using  phenol  phthalein  as  indicator, 
1  c.c.  N/10  NaOH  =  '0049  gr.,  H2S04  =  '0017  gr.  NH3. 
When  making  the  mixing,  ammonia  is  added  to  the 
size  in  amount  slightly  greater  than  is  equivalent 
to  the  quantity  of  free  acid  found.  The  ammonia 
should  be  added  to  the  starch  before  the  calcium 


WEIGHTING  MATEEIALS  37 

sulphate  is  stirred  in,  otherwise  the  free  acid  may  begin 
to  dextrinate  the  starch  and  thus  upset  the  character 
of  the  mixing.  Caustic  soda  or  soda  ash  should  not 
be  employed  for  neutralisation,  as  these  also  affect  the 
quality  of  the  starch  paste. 

The  amount  of  moisture  in  every  cask  of  calcium 
sulphate  must  always  be  determined,  as  it  is  liable  to 
vary  considerably.  About  a  pound  of  the  substance 
should  be  taken  from  different  parts  of  the  cask  and 
well  mixed.  From  this  about  5  grammes  are  weighed 
out  and  carefully  ignited  in  a  platinum  basin  until 
the  weight  is  constant. 

On  ignition  the  water  of  crystallisation  of  the 
calcium  sulphate  is  driven  off,  so  that  the  residue  is 
anhydrous  calcium  sulphate  CaS04;  and  136  parts 
by  weight  represent  172  of  the  crystalline  solid  in  the 
form  in  which  it  exists  in  the  paste. 

The  nature  of  the  feel  produced  by  calcium  sulphate 
in  a  mixing  depends  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the 
size  and  form  of  the  crystals.  These  may  be  either 
large  flat  plates  or  fine  needles.  Care  should  be  taken, 
by  means  of  a  microscopic  examination,  to  see  that 
each  delivery  is  the  same  in  this  respect,  as  otherwise 
it  will  be  impossible  for  the  manufacturer  to  produce 
the  same  feel  in  his  cloth  with  two  different  deliveries 
of  the  "  mineral." 

If  a  small  amount  of  glue  is  added  to  the  calcium 
chloride  before  precipitation,  the  calcium  sulphate 
crystallises  in  the  form  of  minute  five-sided  prismatic 
columns,  but  probably  this  form  is  not  used  by 
manufacturers. 

BARIUM   SULPHATE  (BaS04). 

Barium  Sulphate,  obtained  by  grinding  heavy  spar, 
is  sometimes  used  in  size  mixings.  It  produces  a  very 
harsh  cloth,  and  has  the  objectionable  property  of 
rapidly  wearing  out  the  reeds  and  healds. 


CHAPTER  III 

SOFTENING   INGREDIENTS 

As  has  been  already  explained  in  the  introduction, 
starchy  matters,  either  alone  or  in  conjunction  with 
mineral  matters,  produce  a  warp  which  is  too  stiff  and 
brittle  to  allow  of  good  weaving.  Hence  it  is  neces- 
sary to  add  something  to  the  size  that  will  counteract 
this  tendency  to  hardness. 

The  most  important  substance  used  for  this  purpose 
is  tallow.  Other  softeners  less  frequently  used  are — 

Paraffin  wax.  Japan  wax. 

Cocoanut  oil.  Soaps. 

Olive  oil.  Magnesium  chloride. 

Palm  oil.  Calcium  chloride. 

Castor  oil.  Glycerine. 

Stearin.  Glucose. 

Spermaceti. 

TALLOW. 

Tallow,  on  account  of  its  high  price,  is  very  fre- 
quently adulterated.  The  additions  most  commonly 
met  with  are — 

Water.  Starch. 

Mineral  oils  and  waxes.  Chlorides   of    sodium, 

Bone  and  Marrow  fat.  magnesium     and 

Cottonseed  oil.  calcium. 

Stearin.  Calcium  carbonate. 

Recovered  grease.  Barium  chloride. 

There  are  two  tests  which  should  be   applied   to 


SOFTENING  INGEEDIENTS  39 

every  sample  of  tallow  bought,  namely,  the  determina- 
tion of  the  Sapouification  Equivalent,  and  the  Iodine 
Absorption,  as  these  two  tests  will  at  once  indicate  the 
presence  of  any  of  the  adulterants  mentioned  above, 
and  will  show  what  further  tests  are  necessary  in  order 
to  isolate  the  impurities. 

SAPONIFICATION  EQUIVALENT. 

The  saponification  equivalent  of  a  fat  is  a  figure 
denoting  the  number  of  grammes  of  the  fat  that  can 
be  saponified  by  one  litre  of  normal  caustic  soda 
solution.  The  term  "  saponification  equivalent  "  must 
not  be  confused  with  the  term  "  saponification  value," 
which  is  another  way  employed  by  some  writers  of 
denoting  the  same  property  possessed  by  fats,  viz.,  that 
of  combining  with  alkaline  oxides.  The  saponifica- 
tion value  of  a  fat  is  the  number  of  grammes  of 
caustic  potash  required  to  neutralise  100  grammes 
of  fat.  This  nomenclature  is  rendered  rather  more 
confusing  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  some  books  the 
saponification  value  means  the  number  of  grammes  of 
caustic  potash  required  by  1,000  grammes  of  fat. 

Thus  the  same  value  will  appear  in  different  works, 
as  20  or  200,  which  is  equal  to  a  saponification 
equivalent  of  280. 

To  convert  saponification  equivalent  into  saponifica- 
tion value,  we  can  make  use  of  the  formula— 

.„     ,.  5,600 

Saponification  value  =  5 s — •*— 

Sap.  Equiv. 

or 

.„     ,.  .     ,  5,600 

Saponification  equivalent  =  a       y  1 

Whichever  figure  may  be  required,  the  determination 
is  carried  out  as  follows  :  — 

We  require  accurately  standardised  normal  hydro- 


40 


MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 


chloric  acid,  and  an 
alcoholic  solution  of 
caustic  potash  about  half 
normal  in  strength. 

About  two  grammes 
of  the  fat  are  weighed 
out  into  a  clean  dry  flask. 
To  this  is  added  25  c.c. 
of  the  alcoholic  caustic. 
The  same  volume  of 
caustic  is  placed  in  a 
similar  flask,  and  the 
neck  of  each  is  closed 
by  a  cork  carrying  a  thin 
walled  glass  tube,  about 
30  inches  long  and  \  inch 
internal  diameter  (see 
Fig.  2).  The  two  flasks 
are  then  placed  side  by 
side  on  a  boiling  water 
bath.  The  flame  under 
the  water  bath  is  so 
adjusted  that  the  vapour 
rising  from  the  boiling 
alcohol  in  the  flasks 
condenses  about  half 
way  up  the  tubes.  The 
flask  containing  the  fat 
is  frequently  shaken  in 
such  a  way  as  to  break 
up  the  melted  fat  into 
minute  drops,  as  this 
allows  the  alkali  to  do 
its  work  more  quickly. 
At  the  end  of  half  an 
hour,  the  flask  contain- 
ing no  fat  is  taken  off 


FIG.  2. 


SOFTENING  INGREDIENTS  41 

the  water  bath,  phenol-phthalein  is  added,  and  normal 
hydrochloric  acid  run  in  from  a  burette  until  the  red 
colour  is  just  discharged. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  with  this  titration,  as  the 
phenol-phthalein  gives  hardly  any  warning  as  to  the 
approach  of  the  end  point.  The  contents  of  the  second 
flask  are  now  titrated  in  the  same  way.  Should  the 
contents  solidify  before  the  titration  is  completed,  a 
momentary  immersion  in  the  water  bath  will  melt  the 
soap  jelly.  As  the  same  volume  of  caustic  soda  was  used 
in  both  flasks,  the  difference  between  the  amount  of  acid 
required  by  each  flask  is  a  measure  of  the  caustic 
which  has  combined  with  the  fat.  If  the  strength  of 
the  acid  is  exactly  normal,  a  simple  proportion  sum 
will  give  the  amount  of  fat  that  would  have  neutralised 
one  litre  of  normal  caustic  soda  solution  ;  and  this  is  the 
saponification  equivalent. 

If  the  saponification  value  is  required,  equally 
simple  calculations  will  give  us  the  number  of  grammes 
of  caustic  potash  that  would  have  been  neutralised  by 
100  grammes  of  the  fat. 

The  saponification  equivalent  of  genuine  tallow 
varies  between  283  and  290. 

Mineral  Oils  and  Waxes  have  no  action  on  caustic 
soda,  consequently  the  presence  of  these  substances 
will  increase  the  saponification  equivalent.  For 
example,  if  we  find  that  a  sample  of  tallow  gives  a 
saponification  equivalent  of  320  we  know  that  it  takes 
320  grammes  of  this  particular  tallow  to  neutralise  one 
litre  of  caustic  soda — an  effect  which  285  grammes  of 
pure  tallow  can  produce.  Consequently,  320  parts  of 
this  sample  contain  285  parts  of  tallow,  the  rest  being 
unsaponifiable  matter,  paraffin.  Therefore  the  sample 
contains  285  parts  of  tallow  and  35  of  paraffin,  which 
is  10*9  per  cent. 

The  next  step  is  to  isolate  and  weigh  the  unsaponi- 
fiable matter.  We  take  the  residue  left  in  the  fat  flask 


42        MATERIALS  USED  IN  SIZING 

after  titration,  add  a  few  drops  of  caustic  soda,  and 
distil  off  the  alcohol  on  the  water  bath.  The  residue 
is  then  dissolved  in  about  100  c.c.  water,  and  trans- 
ferred to  a  separating  funnel.  Twenty-five  c.c.  of 
ether  are  added,  and  the  funnel  gently  shaken.  Hard 
shaking  may  produce  an  emulsion,  from  which  the 
ether  only  separates  very  slowly.  When  the  ether  has 
formed  a  clear  layer  on  the  surface  of  the  alkaline 
liquid,  the  latter  is  carefully  run  off  into  a  clean  flask, 
and  the  ethereal  layer  poured  out  of  the  top  of  the 
funnel  into  a  dry  flask.  The  aqueous  layer  is  then 
returned  to  the  separator,  and  treated  twice  more  in 
the  same  way  with  fresh  quantities  of  ether.  After  the 
third  shaking  the  aqueous  layer  is  thrown  away,  the 
ethereal  portions  returned  to  the  separator,  and  shaken 
up  twice  with  100  c.c.  of  cold  water.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  washing  out  of  the  ether  a  small  quantity 
of  soap  which  it  always  dissolves  out  of  the  aqueous 
solution,  as  well  as  the  unsaponifiable  matter.  After 
being  washed,  the  ether  is  poured  into  a  dry,  weighed 
flask,  distilled  off,  and  the  residue  of  unsaponifiable 
matter  weighed. 

In  the  case  of  a  tallow  such  as  cited,  with  a 
saponification  equivalent  of  320,  the  2  grammes  of 
tallow  should  yield  about  '2  grammes  of  unsaponifi- 
able matter.  An  inspection  of  the  residue  will  show 
whether  it  is  paraffin  wax,  a  mineral  oil  or  the 
mixture  of  unsaponifiable  oil  and  waxy  alcohols 
derived  from  recovered  grease. 

Iodine  Absorption. — The  second  important  test  to  be 
applied  to  tallow  is  a  determination  of  its  iodine 
value :  the  percentage  of  iodine  that  the  tallow  can 
combine  with  under  suitable  conditions. 

For  this  determination  the  following  materials  are 
required  : — 

Decinormal  sodium  thiosulphate  solution. 


SOFTENING  INGKEDIENTS  43 

10  per  cent,  potassium  iodide  solution. 

Chloroform. 

Wijs'  solution. 

Wijs'  solution  is  made  as  follows : — 13  grammes 
of  iodine  are  dissolved  in  a  litre  of  glacial  acetic  acid 
by  the  aid  of  gentle  warmth.  The  solution  is  cooled, 
and  10  c.c.  are  pipetted  out  into  a  flask  :  10  c.c.  of 
potassium  iodide  solution,  followed  by  150  c.c.  cold 
water,  are  added,  and  the  mixture  titrated  with  thio- 
sulphate  until  colourless. 

It  is  generally  recommended  to  add  starch  solution 
during  the  titration  of  solutions  containing  iodine,  but 
it  will  be  found  that  the  end  point  of  the  titration  can 
be  observed  just  as  sharply  by  watching  for  the 
disappearance  of  the  yellow  colour.  The  change  from 
yellow  to  colourless  can  be  seen  quite  as  well  by  gas- 
light as  by  daylight.  When  starch  is  used,  the  end 
point  is  frequently  obscured  owing  to  the  presence  of 
partially  swollen  starch  grains,  which  become  coloured 
blue  whilst  the  iodine  is  in  excess,  and  do  not  readily 
give  up  their  iodine  until  the  thiosulphate  is  consider- 
ably in  excess.  Hence  the  solution  remains  of  a 
muddy  purple  colour  even  after  the  titration  is  actually 
completed. 

About  50  c.c.  of  the  acetic  acid  solution  of  iodine  are 
now  placed  in  a  small  dry  flask.  Into  the  remainder 
is  passed  a  current  of  pure  dry  chlorine,  until  the 
colour  of  the  liquid  is  suddenly  observed  to  change 
from  dark  brown  to  light  yellow.  The  current  of 
chlorine  is  now  interrupted,  and  another  10  c.c.  of  the 
liquor  titrated  as  before  with  thiosulphate.  The 
volume  of  thiosulphate  required  should  be  about 
double  what  it  was  for  the  first  titration.  If  more 
than  this  is  required,  some  of  the  original  solution, 
which  was  put  on  one  side  before  chlorinating,  is 
added.  If  less  than  double  the  thiosulphate  is 


44 


MATEEIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 


required,  a  little  more  chlorine  is  passed  in.  When 
the  litre  of  the  liquor  has  been  adjusted  so  as  to  be 
just  doubled,  the  operation  is  complete. 

The  chlorine  for  the  preparation  of  the  Wijs' 
solution  may  be  produced  by  the  action  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  on  bleaching  powder.  (Fig.  3.) 

The   flask   A   containing    about    30    grammes    of 


FIG.  3. 

bleaching  powder,  is  fitted  with  a  doubly  perforated 
cork. 

Through  the  one  perforation  passes  a  tap  funnel,  B, 
containing  100  c.c.  of  25  per  cent  sulphuric  acid  : 
through  the  other  perforation  passes  a  bent  glass  tube 
leading  to  a  wash  bottle  C,  furnished  with  pure 
sulphuric  acid.  The  glass  tube  leading  out  of  the 
wash  bottle  passes  to  the  bottom  of  the  flask  D, 
containing  the  acetic  acid  solution  of  iodine. 


SOFTENING  INGEEDIENTS  45 

Two  clean,  dry  flasks  are  now  prepared,  and  into  one 
of  them  is  weighed  about  *2  gramme  of  the  fat, 
followed  by  10  c.c.  chloroform  and  20  c.c.  of  Wijs' 
solution.  The  same  volumes  of  chloroform  and 
of  Wijs'  solution  are  placed  in  the  second  flask. 
The  two  flasks  are  allowed  to  stand  in  a  cool  place, 
shaded  from  direct  sunlight,  for  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  and  then  titrated  as  directed  above.  When 
the  liquid  becomes  colourless,  it  will  probably  be  seen 
that  the  chloroform  still  retains  some  iodine,  which 
has  coloured  it  violet  or  pink.  The  contents  of  the 
flask  must  in  this  case  be  violently  shaken — the  mouth 
of  the  flask  being  meanwhile  closed  with  a  clean  cork 
— and  the  titration  continued,  until  both  the  aqueous 
and  the  chloroform  layer  no  longer  show  any  trace  of 
iodine  colour. 

One  cubic  centimetre  of  thiosulphate  solution  is 
equivalent  to  "0127  grammes  of  iodine.  Hence  the 
difference  between  the  volume  of  the  thiosulphate 
required  by  the  blank  and  by  the  tallow  flask,  expressed 
in  cubic  centimetres,  multiplied  by  '0127  gives  us  the 
weight  in  grammes  of  iodine  that  has  been  taken  up 
by  the  tallow  or — 

(Volume  of  thiosulphate  required  by  blank — volume  required  by  test)  x  '0127  x  100 
Weight  of  tallow  taken. 

The  result  gives  the  percentage  of  iodine  absorbed, 
or  the  iodine  absorption  value. 

For  tallow  this  varies  between  33  and  61. 

A  correct  saponification  equivalent  and  a  high  iodine 
value  will  point  to  the  presence  of  Cotton-seed  oil,  as 
this  has  an  iodine  value  of  102  to  111,  with  a  saponi- 
fication equivalent  of  292.  Bone  and  marrow  fats  will 
not  be  detected  by  either  test. 

Recovered  Grease  has  a  saponification  equivalent  of 
about  400,  and  an  iodine  absorption  of  only  7  to  28,  so 
that  not  even  a  small  addition  can  escape  detection. 


46  MATERIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

Mineral  Oils  and  Mineral  Waxes  will  have  a  still 
greater  effect  in  the  same  direction,  as  they  have 
neither  iodine  value  nor  saponification  equivalent. 

Starch  will  be  detected  during  the  determination  of 
the  iodine  value,  whilst  water  and  added  mineral  matters 
are  best  found  by  the  tests  described  below,  although 
they  will  of  course  have  already  given  signs  of  their 
presence  during  the  carrying  out  of  the  determinations 
already  mentioned. 

Vaporisation  Test. — In  order  to  obtain  quickly  an 
idea  as  to  the  quality  of  a  sample  of  tallow,  Bean 
recommends  the  determination  of  the  temperature  at 
which  visible  vapours  are  given  off.  About  20 
grammes  of  tallow  are  placed  in  a  porcelain  crucible 
resting  on  a  sand  bath,  and  a  thermometer  is  suspended 
so  that  the  bulb  is  covered  by  the  tallow  when 
melted.  Heat  is  now  applied  from  a  burner  under  the 
sand-bath  until  the  tallow  begins  to  smoke,  when  the 
flame  is  removed,  and  the  crucible  watched  until  the 
vapours  just  cease  to  be  given  off,  when  the  temperature 
shown  by  the  thermometer  is  noted. 

A  pure  tallow  ceases  to  "  vaporise  "  at  a  tempera- 
ture varying  between  125°  and  160°  C.,  whereas 
mineral  oils  vaporise  between  80°  and  110°  C. 
Kecovered  grease,  stearic  acid  and  bone  fat  also  show 
a  low  vaporising  point. 

Incidentally  the  test  also  serves  to  indicate  the 
presence  of  water  and  starchy  matters.  If  water  or  a 
soap  solution  has  been  added  to  the  tallow,  there  is 
much  crackling  and  spirting  during  the  heating  up, 
whilst  starchy  matters  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the 
crucible  and  are  found  there  when  the  tallow  is 
emptied  out,  as  a  partially  charred  mass  which  be- 
comes sticky  on  the  addition  of  water.  -The  indications 
given  by  the  vapourising  test  may  be  confirmed  by 
a  determination  of  the  flash  point  of  the  sample.  For 
this  test  we  require  a  glass  tube  drawn  out  to  a  fine 


SOFTENING  INGEEDIENTS 


47 


point,  and  connected  by 
a  length  of  rubber  tube 
to  another  gas  jet.  The 
gas  is  lit  at  the  end  of 
the  fine  tube,  and  turned 
down  so  that  the  flame 
is  as  small  as  possible. 

The  temperature  of 
the  tallow  is  now  raised 
slowly  and  the  little  gas 
flame  passed  just  over 
the  surface  of  the  tallow 
at  short  intervals  until 
the  vapours  are  seen 
momentarily  to  ignite 
with  a  small  blue  flash. 
With  a  good  tallow,  this 
first  flash  should  take 
place  at  about  260°  C. 
whilst  the  mineral  oils 
generally  used  for  adul- 
teration flash  at  about 
170°  C. 

Melting  Point. — Pure 
tallow  melts  between 
43°  and  47°  C.  The 
addition  of  any  notable 
proportion  of  mineral 
oil,  bone  fat  or  recovered 
grease  will  markedly 
lower  the  melting 
point. 

In  order  to  determine 
this  temperature  a  piece 
of  glass  tube  is  drawn 
out  into  a  capillary, 
and  cut  off  where  it 


3  ins 


FIG.  4. 


48  MATEKIALS   USED   IN    SIZING 

begins  to  widen  in  such  a  way  as  to  leave  one  end 
funnel  shaped. 

A  piece  of  glass  rod  is  drawn  out  to  such  a  thickness 
that  it  will  just  pass  down  inside  the  capillary.  A 
fragment  of  tallow  is  placed  in  the  funnel  mouth  of  the 
capillary,  and  pushed  down  into  the  capillary  proper 
by  means  of  the  thin  glass  rod  so  as  to  form  a  wad 
about  J  inch  long.  The  capillary  is  then  sealed  off 
about  an  inch  below  the  tallow,  and  is  fastened  to  the 
side  of  a  thermometer  so  that  the  wad  of  tallow  is  held 
on  a  level  with  the  bulb.  A  convenient  way  of  fasten- 
ing the  capillary  to  the  thermometer  is  to  make  a 
rubber  ring  by  cutting  a  very  thin  section  off  the  end 
of  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing.  The  capillary  is  held  in 
position  alongside  the  thermometer  bulb,  and  the 
rubber  ring  slipped  over  it  and  the  thermometer. 
Capillary  and  thermometer  are  now  suspended  in  a 
beaker  of  water,  and  the  water  is  slowly  heated,  being 
at  the  same  time  kept  well  stirred.  (See  Fig.  4.) 

Should  air  bubbles  form  on  the  thermometer  bulb  or 
capillary,  they  are  best  removed  with  a  touch  from  a 
small  paint  brush. 

As  soon  as  the  tallow  is  just  melted  to  a  clear 
liquid,  the  temperature  of  the  thermometer  is  noted, 
and  the  flame  removed.  As  the  water  cools,  the  tallow 
is  carefully  watched  until  it  begins  to  turn  cloudy,  or 
crystals  form  in  it,  when  the  temperature  is  again 
noted.  The  mean  between  the  two  observed  tempera- 
tures is  the  true  melting  point  of  the  tallow. 

It  is  sometimes  recommended  to  fill  the  capillary  tube 
by  drawing  up  into  it  a  drop  of  tallow  which  has  been 
melted  in  a  crucible.  If  this  is  done,  the  drop  should 
be  allowed  to  cool  and  to  lie  undisturbed  for  at  least 
six  hours  before  the  melting  point  is  determined, 
as  otherwise  too  low  a  value  will  be  obtained. 

To  prove  the  presence  of  bone  or  marrow  fats,  a  few 
grammes  of  tallow  are  boiled  in  a  dish  with  strong 


SOFTENING  INGKEDIENTS  49 

hydrochloric  acid  for  five  minutes.  These  fats  are 
always  accompanied  by  a  small  amount  of  calcium 
phosphate,  which  is  extracted  by  the  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  aqueous  layer  is  evaporated  nearly  to  dryness, 
taken  up  with  a  little  water  and  filtered.  To  the 
filtrate  is  added  a  slight  excess  of  ammonia,  when  the 
calcium  phosphate  will  be  thrown  down  as  a  white 
precipitate.  To  confirm  the  presence  of  phosphate, 
the  precipitate  is  redissolved  by  the  addition  of  an 
excess  of  nitric  acid,  followed  by  the  addition  of  a  solu- 
tion of  ammonium  molybdate.  A  yellow  precipitate 
on  heating  indicates  the  presence  of  a  phosphate. 

Tallow  which  had  originally  a  bad  colour  is  fre- 
quently bleached  by  means  of  mineral  acid ;  this 
should  be  very  carefully  washed  out  again  by  the 
tallow  manufacturer.  To  test  for  mineral  acid,  the 
tallow  is  boiled  in  a  basin  for  ten  minutes  with  a  little 
water.  The  water  should  remain  quite  neutral  to 
methyl  orange.  If  the  methyl  orange  is  reddened 
the  amount  of  acid  extracted  can  be  titrated  by  means 
of  1/100  normal  caustic  soda. 

1  c.c.  of  N/100  caustic  soda  is  equivalent  to 
•00049  gramme  of  acid  calculated  as  sulphuric  acid. 
If  the  tallow  contains  any  starch,  this  will  also  have 
gone  into  solution  in  the  water ;  and  its  presence  can 
be  demonstrated  by  the  blue  colouration  with  iodine. 
Having  now  described  the  various  adulterants  that 
may  be  added  to  tallow,  and  the  means  for  their 
detection  and  estimation,  some  consideration  should 
be  given  to  the  question  as  to  how  these  substances 
will  effect  the  quality  of  the  tallow. 

Bone  and  Marrow  Fat,  Cotton-seed  Oil  and  Stearine 
are  nearly  as  good  as  tallow,  as  regards  their  softening 
effect.  But  they  are  all  cheaper  than  tallow,  so  that 
their  presence  should  not  be  tolerated  if  a  good  price 
has  been  paid  for  the  tallow. 

Starch,  Soap,  Water  and  Soluble  Chlorides  are  much 

s.  B 


50  MATEBIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

more  objectionable  adulterants,  as  they  reduce  the 
softening  value  of  the  tallow  considerably.  Further, 
the  chlorides  of  calcium  or  magnesium  may  give  rise 
to  serious  injury  if  the  cloth  is  to  be  bleached.  They 
will  cause  tendering  and  discolouration  in  the  singe- 
ing operation.  They  can  only  be  regarded  as  harm- 
less if  the  cloth  is  to  be  used  in  the  grey  state. 

Paraffin  Wax,  Mineral  Oil,  and.  Recovered  Grease  are 
fairly  good  softeners.  But  they  are  not  attacked  by 
alkalies ;  consequently  if  the  cloth  has  to  be  bleached 
or  dyed,  they  are  not  removed  by  the  scouring  to 
which  the  cloth  is  subjected.  They  remain  on  the 
cloth  in  patches,  and  partially  protect  it  from  the 
action  of  the  dyeing  or  bleaching  liquors.  The  result 
is  irregular  stains  and  markings. 

PABAFFIN  WAX. 

In  certain  cases  this  is  quite  a  good  softener.  It  is 
very  seldom  adulterated.  The  most  suitable  quality 
is  that  having  a  melting  point  of  about  50°  C.  The 
melting  point  is  determined  in  the  same  way  as  that 
of  tallow  (see  p.  47).  Paraffin  wax,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  completely  removing  it  from  the  cloth, 
should  never  be  used  on  goods  which  are  to  be 
bleached,  dyed,  or  finished. 

BONE  FAT  AND  MARROW  FAT. 

These  fats  resemble  tallow  very  closely  both  in 
their  softening  power  and  in  their  chemical  constants. 
They  possess,  however,  a  lower  melting  point,  averag- 
ing 38°  C.  They  frequently  possess  a  very  bad 
colour ;  but  provided  that  this  defect  is  absent  there 
is  no  objection  to  using  them  in  place  of  tallow. 

COCOANTJT  OIL. 

Cocoanut  oil  at  ordinary  temperatures  is  a  white 
or  cream-coloured  solid,  with  a  very  characteristic 


SOFTENING  INGREDIENTS  51 

smell.  It  melts  at  20°  to  28°  C.  It  is  somewhat 
extensively  used  for  certain  classes  of  goods,  mixed 
with  Epsom  salts.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from 
other  fats  by  its  low  saponification  equivalent,  209  to 
228,  and  its  low  iodine  absorption,  8  to  9*5  per  cent. 

OLIVE  OIL. 

At  the  present  time  the  price  of  olive  oil  is  pro- 
hibitive. It  is  very  frequently  adulterated  with 
cotton-seed  oil  or  mineral  oils.  It  has  a  saponification 
equivalent  of  286  to  303,  and  an  iodine  absorption  of 
79  to  88. 

PALM  OIL. 

Crude  Palm  Oil  has  a  bright  yellow  or  orange  colour, 
and  so  cannot  be  used  for  ordinary  size  mixings.  In 
its  bleached  state,  however,  it  finds  considerable 
favour.  The  most  frequent  adulterant  is  water,  of 
which  a  large  quantity  can  be  mixed  into  the  melted 
oil,  without  altering  its  appearance  after  it  has  con- 
gealed. Palm  oil  has  a  saponification  equivalent  of 
277  to  286,  and  an  iodine  absorption  of  48  to  54. 

CASTOR  OIL. 

This  oil  is  perhaps  quite  as  good  a  softener  as  tallow. 
But  it  is  not  much  used,  as  it  is  very  liable  to  give  the 
cloth  a  greasy  appearance.  The  smell,  too,  is  not 
altogether  pleasant.  Its  saponification  equivalent 
varies  between  302  and  319  ;  the  iodine  absorption 
from  83  to  85.  Castor  oil  is  remarkable  in  being  the 
only  neutral  fat  or  oil  which  is  freely  soluble  in 
alcohol. 

STEARINE. 

Commercial  Stearine  is  a  mixture  in  varying  pro- 
portions of  stearic  and  palmitic  acids.  It  should  have 
a  melting  point  of  about  70°  C.  and  a  very  low  iodine 

E  2 


52  MATERIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 

absorption.  The  saponification  equivalent  is  determined 
by  dissolving  a  known  weight  of  the  sample  in  hot 
neutralised  alcohol  and  titrating  with  normal  caustic 
and  phenol  phthalein.  The  figure  given  by  a  pure 
sample  is  between  285  and  293.  Oily  drops  insoluble 
in  alcohol,  or  a  high  saponification  equivalent,  point 
to  the  presence  of  paraffin  wax,  with  which  this 
substance  is  frequently  adulterated. 

SPERMACETI. 

Spermaceti  comes  into  the  market  as  a  white  waxy 
solid  with  a  characteristic  crystalline  .fracture.  The 
melting  point  varies  between  44°  and  50°  C.,  according 
to  the  amount  of  sperm  oil  present.  It  is  frequently 
adulterated  with  stearine,  tallow  and  paraffin  wax.  Its 
saponification  equivalent  is  437,  and  iodine  absorption 
0  to  10  per  cent. 

Stearine  and  tallow  will  be  indicated  by  the  lower 
saponification  equivalent  and  raised  iodine  absorption. 
But  if  a  judicious  admixture  of  paraffin  wax  be  added 
as  well,  this  alteration  of  the  values  can  be  totally 
masked.  Such  a  mixture,  however,  will  lower  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  wax.  Spermaceti  has  the  high 
specific  gravity  of  '942  at  15°  C.,  whilst  paraffin  wax 
is  only  '90. 

In  order  to  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  a  sample 
of  spermaceti,  a  small  piece,  about  as  big  as  a  pea,  is 
carefully  trimmed  smooth,  and  placed  in  a  cylinder 
containing  either  alcohol  or  strong  ammonia.  Water 
is  then  cautiously  added,  until  the  lumps  of  wax  will 
remain  floating  in  any  part  of  the  liquid.  The  liquid 
and  the  wax  are  now  of  the  same  specific  gravity.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  is  then  determined  by 
means  of  the  hydrometer. 

The  hydrometer  is  an  instrument  in  the  form  of  an 
elongated  glass  bulb,  to  which  is  affixed  a  thin 
cylindrical  rod.  The  bulb  is  so  weighted  as  to  float 


SOFTENING   INGREDIENTS 


53 


with  the  thin  rod  upright.  The  rod  is  usually  hollow 
and  contains  a  paper  scale  on  which  specific  gravities 
are  marked.  These  markings  are  so  adjusted  that 
the  one  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid  in  which  the  hydro- 
meter is  floating,  is  the  specific  gravity  of  that  liquid. 

Spermaceti  is  much  more  expensive  than  any  of  the 
other  softeners  that  we  have  considered  hitherto,  and 
it  apparently  fails  to  produce  any  effect  different  from 
that  obtainable  from  a  mixture  of  tallow  and  paraffin 
wax,  so  that  the  reason  for  its  use  as  a  softener  is  not 
very  obvious. 

JAPAN  WAX. 

Japan  Wax,  chemically,  closely  resembles  tallow.  It, 
however,  contains  very  little  olein,  the  ingredient  that 
gives  to  tallow  a  high  iodine  absorption.  The  iodine 
absorption  is  only  4  to  6,  the  saponification  equivalent 
252  to  267.  It  is  a  hard  yellowish  or  greenish  wax 
melting  between  51°  and  54°  C.  It  is  not  much  used 
by  manufacturers,  but  as  it  gives  a  feel  very  like 
that  produced  by  paraffin  wax,  whilst,  unlike  paraffin 
wax,  it  is  readily  removed  in  the  alkaline  boil,  it 
deserves  a  more  extended  adoption. 

TABLE  OF  CONSTANTS  OF  FATTY  SOFTENERS. 


Name  of  Fat. 

Saponification 
Equivalent. 

Iodine 
Absorption. 

Melting  Point. 

Tallow.         .         .     J 

283—290 

33—61 

44°—  48°  0. 

Bone  and  marrow  fat 

294 

48-55 

38°  C. 

Cotton-seed  oil     . 

292 

102—111 

—  2°C. 

Stearine 

285—293 

0 

26°—  31°  C. 

Cocoanut  oil 

209—228 

8—9-5 

20°—  28°  C. 

Olive  oil 

286—303 

78—88 

2°  C. 

Palm  oil 

277—286 

48—54 

27°—  42°  C. 

Castor  oil 

302—319 

83—85 

—  17°C. 

Spermaceti   . 

437 

0—10 

44°—  50°  C. 

Japan  wax    . 

252—267 

4—6 

51°—  54°  C. 

Paraffin  wax 

00 

0 

50°  C. 

54  MATERIALS   USED   IN    SIZING 

SOAPS. 

Soaps  form  a  very  useful  class  of  softening  materials, 
when  used  knowingly  as  such,  and  not  disguised 
under  the  name  of  "  tallow  substitute"  or  "patent 
softening." 

Soaps  are  known  either  as  hard  or  soft  soaps.  The 
soft  soaps  are  the  potassium  salts  of  fatty  acids,  the 
hard  soaps,  sodium  salts.  They  are  usually  made  by 
boiling  fats  with  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  or  soda, 
according  as  to  whether  a  soft  or  hard  soap  is  required. 
In  the  case  of  potash  soaps,  the  quantities  of  alkali,  fat 
and  water  are  so  adjusted  as  to  give  the  finished  article 
af  fcer  a  sufficient  length  of  boiling.  Soda  or  hard  soaps 
are  usually  boiled  with  more  water  and  a  slight  excess 
of  alkali.  When  all  the  fat  is  saponified  and  has  gone 
into  solution,  salt  is  added.  This  precipitates  the  soap, 
which  rises  as  a  granular  mass  to  the  surface  of  the 
liquor.  It  is  removed  and  pressed  into  cakes,  when  it 
gradually  solidifies. 

When  a  soap  solution  is  treated  with  an  acid  the  soap 
is  decomposed ;  the  salt  of  the  acid  is  formed,  and  the 
fatty  acids  of  the  soap  liberated.  Since  100  parts  of 
fat  'yield  97  parts  of  fatty  acid,  the  purity  of  a  soap 
may  be  measured  by  determining  the  percentage  of 
fatty  acids  yielded  by  the  sample.  An  ordinary  quality 
of  hard  soap  should  yield  about  60  per  cent,  of  fatty 
acids,  a  good  soft  soap  about  40  per  cent. 

The  fatty  acid  content  of  a  soap  may  be  determined 
in  two  ways.  The  simpler  but  less  accurate  method  is 
that  known  as  the  "  Wax  Cake  Method.'" 

Ten  grammes  of  soap  are  dissolved  in  a  100  c.c.  basin 
in  50  to  60  c.c.  of  water,  heating  on  the  water  bath  and 
stirring  until  solution  is  complete.  An  excess  of  sul- 
phuric acid  is  then  added,  followed  by  exactly  10 
grammes  of  beeswax  or  paraffin  wax.  The  mixture  is 
now  gently  boiled  until  all  the  liberated  fatty  acid  has 
been  taken  up  by  the  molten  wax,  and  the  contents  of 


SOFTENING   INGREDIENTS  55 

the  basin  have  become  clear.  The  basin  is  now  allowed 
to  stand  in  a  cool  place  until  the  layer  of  wax  and  fatty 
acid  has  solidified.  The  cake  is  then  carefully  lifted 
out  of  the  basin,  the  acid  liquor  poured  off  and  replaced 
by  clean  water. 

The  contents  of  the  basin  are  next  gently  boiled 
again  for  a  few  minutes,  after  which  the  cake  is 
allowed  to  solidify  once  more.  It  is  now  washed  and 
gently  wiped  dry  with  filter  paper.  The  basin  is  also 
wiped  dry,  taking  care  that  no  fatty  material  is  removed. 
The  cake  is  then  melted  in  the  dry  basin,  and  kept  hot 
for  some  while,  in  order  to  allow  the  last  droplets  of 
water  to  settle  to  the  bottom.  Finally,  the  cake  is 
allowed  to  cool  and  weighed.  The  weight  of  cake,  less 
10  grammes,  is  the  weight  of  fatty  acid  obtained  from 
10  grammes  of  soap. 

A  more  elegant  and  accurate  process  is  the  extrac- 
tion method.  One  to  two  grammes  of  the  sample 
are  carefully  weighed  into  a  flask.  About  100  c.c. 
water  are  added,  and  the  flask  kept  hot  on  the  water 
bath  until  the  soap  has  dissolved.  The  solution  is 
cooled  and  transferred  to  a  separating  funnel,  and  is 
treated  there  with  a  small  excess  of  hydrochloric 
acid.  About  25  c.c.  of  ether  or  light  petrol  are  added, 
and  the  mixture  well  shaken.  The  volatile  solvent 
will  take  up  most  of  the  fatty  acid  after  one  shaking, 
and  rises  to  a  homogeneous  clear  layer  above  the  acid 
solution.  When  the  line  of  separation  is  sharply 
defined,  the  watery  layer  is  carefully  run  back  into  the 
flask  in  which  the  soap  was  originally  dissolved,  whilst 
the  ethereal  layer  is  poured  out  of  the  top  of  the 
separator  into  a  dry  weighed  flask.  The  acid  solution 
is  now  returned  to  the  separator,  and  the  flask  is  rinsed, 
first  with  a  little  water,  then  with  25  c.c.  ether  or 
petrol,  the  rinsings  being  added  to  the  contents  of  the 
separator.  The  mixture  is  once  more  well  shaken,  and 
the  ethereal  layer,  after  separation,  added  to  the  previous 


56 


MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 


portion.  The  extraction  is  repeated  a  third  time,  and 
then  the  ether  or  petrol  is  distilled  off  on  the 
water  bath  (see  Fig.  5),  and  the  flask  is  dried  and 
weighed. 

I  have  alluded  above  to  the  use  of  ether  or  petrol. 
Ether  is  very  expensive,  but  in  the  case  of  "  olein  oils," 


O 


4  FEET 


""MMM'M 


FIG.  5. 

"  soluble  "  oils,  and  olive  oil  soaps  it  must  be  used,  as 
petrol  gives  too  low  a  result.  Where  economy  has  to 
be  studied  the  first  two  washes  may  be  made  with 
ether,  and  the  third  with  petrol,  as  this  has  the  pro- 
perty of  recovering  not  only  the  last  traces  of  fatty 
acid,  but  most  of  the  ether  as  well. 

In  fat  extractions  the  term  "petrol"  does  not  signify 
motor  spirit,  but  the  lighter  variety  known  as  Anglo's 
'680  spirit,  which  is  too  volatile  for  engines,  but 


SOFTENING  INGEEDIENTS  57 

admirably  suited  for  laboratory  use.  It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  used  exactly  as  bought,  as  it  contains  a  small 
proportion  of  oils  only  volatile  with  difficulty.  It  is 
advisable,  therefore,  before  use,  to  distil  it  on  the 
water  bath,  and  to  reject  the  fraction  remaining 
behind. 

This  distillation  is  much  facilitated  if  a  piece  of 
thick  string  is  fastened  to  the  lower  side  of  the  cork 
closing  the  distillation  flask,  and  of  such  a  length  as 
to  reach  just  to  the  bottom  of  the  flask.  The  heavy 
residue  should  not  be  thrown  away,  but  should  be 
preserved  for  cleaning  out  greasy  flasks. 

When  determining  the  percentage  of  fatty  acid  in 
the  class  of  soaps  known  as  Turkey-red  oil,  soluble 
oil,  oleine  oil,  or  monopol  soap,  the  solution  should  be 
saturated  with  common  salt  before  adding  the  acid, 
since  a  portion  of  the  fatty  acids  of  these  soaps  is 
soluble  in  water,  but  insoluble  in  a  strong  brine.  If 
this  precaution  is  not  taken  the  results  obtained  will 
be  low.  As  I  have  already  mentioned,  these  fatty  acids 
have  to  be  extracted  with  ether. 

Etber  always  dissolves  a  little  water,  and  this 
water  is  left  behind  in  the  distillation  flask  together 
with  the  fatty  acids.  These  fatty  acids  soon  decompose 
when  heated  in  presence  of  water  :  they  become  dis- 
coloured, char  and  lose  weight.  To  prevent  this,  as 
soon  as  all  the  ether  has  distilled  over,  the  flask  is 
placed  in  the  boiling  water  bath  and  air  is  blown  in 
until  all  the  drops  of  water  have  disappeared.  The 
flask  is  then  at  once  cooled,  wiped  dry  and  weighed. 

FREE   ALKALI  IN   SOAP. 

Soap  is  made  by  boiling  fats  with  caustic  soda 
solution,  or  fatty  acids  with  sodium  carbonate.  If  the 
quantity  of  alkali  is  not  carefully  adjusted  to  the 
requirements  of  the  fatty  bodies,  or  if  the  purification 


58  MATEKIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 

of  the  soap  is  not  conducted  carefully,  excess  of  alkali 
may  easily  be  left  in  the  finished  product.  Sodium 
carbonate  and  silicate  are  also  frequently  added  to 
inferior  soaps,  as  they  enable  the  manufacturer  to 
produce  an  article  containing  an  undue  amount  of 
moisture,  whilst  still  retaining  the  hardness  generally 
associated  with  a  high  percentage  of  fatty  acids. 

It  is  very  essential  that  a  soap  for  use  in  sizing 
mixtures  should  be  free  from  excess  of  alkali,  since 
these  would  alter  the  properties  of  the  starchy 
components, 

THE  DETEBMINATION  OF  FEEE  ALKALIES  IN  SOAP. 

The  method  used  is  based  on  the  fact  that  sodium 
carbonate  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  whereas  caustic  soda 
and  soap  both  dissolve  freely.  About  half  a  litre  of 
neutralised  alcohol  will  be  required  for  each  analysis. 
This  is  made  from  ordinary  methylated  spirit,  by 
adding  phenol  phthalein  and  then  dilute  caustic  soda, 
until  the  alcohol  is  just  pink. 

Five  grammes  of  the  soap  are  weighed  into  a  clean 
dry  flask,  and  100  c.c.  of  the  neutralised  alcohol 
added.  The  flask  is  then  warmed  on  the  water  bath 
until  the  soap  has  entirely  dissolved.  The  rest  of  the 
alcohol  is  meanwhile  placed  in  a  wash  bottle,  and 
brought  to  the  boil  on  another  water  bath. 

If  the  soap  dissolves  in  the  alcohol  without  any 
residue,  it  cannot  contain  any  free  carbonate  or 
silicate. 

If  there  is  any  free  caustic  soda  present  the  red 
colour  of  the  alcohol  will  have  deepened. 

Should  there  be  any  visible  sediment,  the  alcoholic 
soap  solution  is  filtered  as  quickly  as  possible  through 
a  small  filter  paper  in  a  previously  warmed  funnel. 
As  soon  as  nearly  all  the  soap  solution  has  run  through, 
the  filter  is  filled  up  with  the  hot  neutralised  alcohol. 


SOFTENING  INGKEDIENTS  59 

The  washing  with  alcohol  is  continued  until  all  the 
soap  has  been  removed.  About  300  c.c.  of  alcohol 
will  be  required. 

Soap  is  neutral  to  phenol  phthalein  in  alcoholic 
solution,  whilst  caustic  soda  behaves  just  as  it  does  in 
water.  Hence  the  amount  of  free  caustic  in  the 
alcoholic  filtrate  may  be  determined  at  once  by 
titration  with  normal  hydrochloric  acid.  Sulphuric 
acid  must  not  be  used,  as  the  sodium  sulphate 
formed  is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  It  will  be  precipi- 
tated as  a  white  powder,  and  mask  the  end  of  the 
titration. 

Filter  paper  always  absorbs  a  small  amount  of 
caustic  soda.  Hence  it  may  happen  that  a  soap 
solution  which  was  pink  before  filtration  runs  through 
the  filter  colourless.  The  amount  retained,  however, 
is  so  small  that  it  may  with  safety  be  neglected  and 
such  a  soap  can  be  regarded  as  for  all  practical 
purposes  free  from  caustic  soda. 

A  soap  may  contain  free  fatty  acid.  In  this  case 
the  original  pink  colour  of  the  alcohol  will  be  dis- 
charged as  the  soap  dissolves.  It  is  filtered  and 
washed  as  usual,  but  is  titrated  with  N/10  caustic 
soda,  and  the  free  acid  calculated  as  oleic  acid. 

1  c.c.  N/10  caustic  soda  =  "028  gramme  fatty  acid. 

Any  sodium  carbonate  present  in  the  soap  will  be 
left  on  the  filter  paper.  It  is  washed  out  with  hot 
water,  and  titrated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  methyl 
orange. 

Sodium  silicate  is  slowly  decomposed  when  boiled 
in  alcohol  into  caustic  soda  and  silica.  The  caustic 
soda  goes  into  the  alcoholic  filtrate,  the  undecomposed 
silicate  dissolves  along  with  the  sodium  carbonate  and 
is  titrated  as  such,  whilst  the  liberated  silica  remains 
on  the  filter  as  a  colourless  gelatinous  mass,  which 
may  be  determined  by  igniting  the  filter  and  weighing 
the  residue  of 


60  MATERIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 

MOISTURE  IN  SOAP. 

A  good  hard  (soda)  soap  should  contain  from  60 
to  64  per  cent,  of  fatty  acids  and  about  30  per 
cent,  of  moisture.  A  soft  soap  will  contain  40  per 
cent,  fatty  acids,  and  about  50  per  cent,  of  moisture. 
Hence  an  idea  as  to  the  value  of  a  soap  can  be 
obtained  from  the  estimation  of  the  amount  of 
moisture  present.  The  process  for  the  determination 
of  the  moisture  is  carried  out  in  the  following 
manner  :— 

Into  a  dry  100  c.c.  basin  place  about  25  grammes 
of  clean  dry  sand  and  a  glass  rod.  About  5  grammes 
of  soap  are  then  accurately  weighed  into  the  basin. 
To  the  contents  of  the  basin  are  added  about  50  c.c. 
rectified  spirit,  and  the  mixture  is  stirred  constantly 
on  a  simmering  water  bath. 

The  soap  will  dissolve  in  the  alcohol,  and  as  this 
boils  away  it  will  carry  with  it  most  of  the  water  that 
was  in  the  soap.  The  pasty  mixture  of  sand  and  soap 
must  be  frequently  broken  up  with  the  glass  rod  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  any  lumps.  When  the 
mixture  has  become  dry  and  powdery,  the  basin  with 
its  contents  is  placed  in  an  oven  and  dried  at  105°  C. 
until  constant.  The  loss  is  water. 

Use  of  Soap  in  Sizing. — Soap  is  freely  used  as  a 
softener  in  light  sizing.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind 
that  soap  reacts  with  Epsom  salts  and  all  other  metallic 
salts,  and  consequently  should  never  be  added  to  a 
mixing  containing  these  bodies.  With  Epsom  salts 
the  final  products  will  be  sodium  sulphate  and  a 
magnesium  soap.  This,  as  well  as  the  calcium  and 
zinc  soaps,  is  a  colourless,  sticky  substance. 

The  metallic  soaps  are  water  repellant,  and  hence 
are  not  easy  to  remove  when  the  cloth  is  scoured. 
The  magnesium  compounds,  and  especially  that 
formed  from  soaps  containing  resin,  have  the  further 


SOFTENING  INGKEDIENTS  61 

objectionable  property  of  slowly  turning  brown,  owing 
probably  to  oxidation. 

DELIQUESCENTS. 

The  tbird  class  of  bodies  added  to  size  in  order 
to  keep  the  yarn  soft  are  those  whose  activity  is  due 
to  their  power  of  absorbing  moisture  from  the  air,  and 
thus  keeping  the  cotton  damp. 

In  light  sizes  such  bodies  are  not  required,  as  soap 
or  tallow  will  do  all  that  is  necessary.  But  in  heavy 
mixings  the  influence  of  these  has  to  be  supplemented 
by  the  addition  of  a  deliquescent.  The  bodies  used  for 
this  purpose  are — 

Magnesium  chloride.          Glycerine. 
Calcium  chloride.  Glucose. 

MAGNESIUM  CHLORIDE  (Mgd2.6H20). 

Magnesium  Chloride  is  sold  as  a  white  crystalline 
solid,  containing  46  per  cent,  of  the  dry  substance,  or 
as  a  solution  containing  30  per  cent.  The  commercial 
article  is  usually  quite  pure,  but  the  following  impuri- 
ties should  be  looked  for. 

Magnesium  and  Sodium  Sulphates. — These  are  ob- 
jectionable, inasmuch  as  they  are  not  deliquescent. 
Their  presence  is  detected  by  the  white  precipitate  of 
barium  sulphate  produced  on  adding  a  little  hydro- 
chloric acid,  followed  by  barium  chloride. 

Sodium  Chloride. — Common  salt  also  lowers  the 
deliquescent  power  of  the  magnesium  chloride.  Its 
presence  in  any  quantity  sufficient  to  be  detrimental  is 
detected  as  follows : — 

The  sample  is  mixed  with  twice  its  bulk  of  strong 
hydrochloric  acid,  in  which  sodium  chloride  is  prac- 
tically insoluble.  Hence  the  method  may  be  made 
quantitative.  The  precipitate  is  washed  by  decanta- 
tion,  with  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  until  free  from 


62  MATERIALS  USED   IN   SIZING 

magnesium.  It  is  then  transferred  to  a  basin,  the 
acid  evaporated  off  on  the  water  bath,  and  the  residue 
weighed. 

Calcium  Chloride. — This  is  almost  as  good  a  deliques- 
cent as  magnesium  chloride.  It  is  objectionable, 
however,  if  soluble  sulphates  are  to  be  added  to  the 
mixing,  as  it  will  react  with  these,  forming  insoluble 
calcium  sulphate,  and  thus  altogether  alter  the 
character  of  the  size.  To  detect  calcium,  the  sample 
is  dissolved  in  water  and  mixed  with  a  considerable 
proportion  of  ammonium  chloride.  Excess  of  ammonia 
is  then  added.  If  any  precipitate  of  magnesium 
hydrate  is  formed,  it  should  be  redissolved  by  the 
addition  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Ammonia  is  then  again  added,  and  the  further 
production  of  ammonium  chloride  should  keep  the 
magnesium  in  solution.  After  the  ammonia  there  is 
added  ammonium  oxalate.  This  will  react  with  any 
calcium  present  to  form  a  white  precipitate  of  calcium 
oxalate. 

Iron  Compounds. — These  wrill  be  present  as  ferrous 
or  ferric  chloride.  The  smallest  traces  are  very  objec- 
tionable, as  they  tend  to  break  down  irregularly  into 
ferric  oxide,  after  the  warp  is  dried,  with  the  formation 
of  patches  of  "  iron  mould." 

Magnesium  chloride  is  an  excellent  softener,  but  its 
use  is  attended  with  considerable  danger.  When  a 
solution  of  magnesium  chloride  is  evaporated  it 
partially  decomposes.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  given  off, 
and  an  oxychloride  remains  behind.  Warps  treated 
with  a  size  containing  magnesium  chloride  should  be 
dried  very  carefully  at  a  comparatively  low  temperature, 
so  that  the  decomposition  is  minimised,  and  the  yarn 
is  not  tendered. 

When  cloth  is  to  be  bleached,  the  first  process  to 
which  it  is  subjected  is  that  known  as  "  singeing  "  or 
"  firing."  The  cloth  is  drawn  over  a  red-hot  copper 


SOFTENING  INGREDIENTS  63 

plate,  or  between  two  rows  of  gas  flames.  If  it  con- 
tains magnesium  chloride,  it  will  certainly  be  tendered, 
if  not  altogether  destroyed,  by  the  high  temperature 
to  which  it  has  been  subjected.  The  remedy  is  simple. 
Before  firing,  the  cloth  must  be  washed  and  dried.  The 
trouble  arises  when  the  manufacturer  omits  to  inform 
the  bleacher  of  the  necessity  of  this  preliminary  wash. 

At  times  the  manufacturer  does  not  know  that  he 
has  used  magnesium  chloride.  There  are  many 
preparations  still  being  sold  as  "  patent  softeners,"  or 
"  glycerine  substitutes,"  the  basis  of  which  is  mag- 
nesium chloride,  mixed  with  dextrin  or  glucose. 

Magnesium  chloride  cannot  entirely  replace  tallow 
as  a  softener  either  in  light  or  heavy  sizing.  It  does 
not  produce  the  same  feel  when  used  by  itself.  It 
should  only  be  added  as  a  supplementary  ingredient. 

But  there  is  another  objection  to  the  replacement  of 
the  functions  of  tallow  with  too  great  a  proportion  of 
magnesium  chloride. 

Yarn  sized  in  this  way  acts  very  energetically  on 
any  iron  with  which  it  may  happen  to  come  into  con- 
tact ;  it  induces  a  rapid  formation  of  rust,  and  the  rust 
so  produced  will  be  deposited  in  part  upon  the  cotton, 
thus  causing  very  unsightly  iron  stains,  particularly 
when  the  looms  are  allowed  to  stand  motionless  for  a 
while. 

The  erroneous  opinion  is  still  held  by  some  manu- 
facturers that  magnesium  chloride  has  antiseptic 
properties.  Far  from  this  being  the  case,  magnesium 
chloride  favours  the  growth  of  mildew.  It  not  only 
provides  moisture,  without  which  the  spores  cannot 
germinate,  but  it  also  acts  as  a  foodstuff  for  the  spores 
when  they  have  germinated. 

CALCIUM  CHLOEIDB  (CaCl2.6H20). 

This  substance  is  very  similar  to  magnesium 
chloride  in  its  properties.  The  crystalline  preparation 


64  MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

is  usually  of  sufficient  purity  to  be  used  without  any 
fear  of  untoward  results.  It  is  also  sold  in  a  fused 
condition,  containing  about  70  per  cent,  of  the  anhy- 
drous substance.  If  purchased  in  this  form,  the 
material  must  be  carefully  tested  for  free  acid  and 
iron  oxide. 

Free  acid  will  be  liable  to  cause  tendering  of  the 
yarn,  and  will  also  dextrinate  the  starch  in  the  mixing, 
thus  entirely  altering  its  character. 

The  solution  must  be  quite  neutral  to  methyl  orange, 
and  must  give  no  blue  colouration  on  the  addition  of 
potassium  ferrocyanide.  Both  iron  and  free  acid  are 
readily  removed  by  adding  slaked  lime  to  the  solution 
until  it  no  longer  reddens  methyl  orange.  The  excess 
of  lime  and  any  precipitated  iron  oxide  can  then  be 
filtered  off  or  allowed  to  settle,  and  the  clear  liquor, 
after  having  been  made  up  to  a  definite  specific  gravity, 
used  as  required. 

Calcium  hypochlorite  (bleaching  powder)  is  also  at 
times  met  with  as  an  impurity  in  calcium  chloride. 
It  may  be  detected  by  making  the  solution  distinctly 
acid  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  then  adding  potassium 
iodide  and  starch  solution.  Any  blue  colouration 
indicates  the  presence  of  hypochlorites.  The  reaction 
is  quantitative. 

If  a  known  weight  of  the  sample  is  treated  in  this 
way,  and  then  titrated  with  sodium  thiosulphate  until 
the  blue  colour  is  just  destroyed,  a  proportionate 
amount  of  thiosulphate  can  be  added  to  the  calcium 
chloride  solution  before  it  is  added  to  the  size. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  calcium  chloride 
cannot  be  used  in  a  mixing  that  contains  soluble 
sulphates.  A  reaction  takes  place  resulting  in  the 
formation  of  insoluble  crystalline  calcium  sulphate. 
If  the  sulphate  was  introduced  as  sodium  sulphate, 
the  products  of  the  reaction  will  be  calcium  sulphate 
and  sodium  chloride — a  soluble  weighting  material 


SOFTENING  INGREDIENTS  65 

and  a  deliquescent  replaced  by  another  soluble  weight- 
ing material  (sodium  chloride)  and  a  harsh  non- 
deliquescent  insoluble  material. 

GLYCERINE. 

When  a  fat  is  boiled  with  caustic  soda,  we  obtain 
soap,  and  an  impure  solution  of  glycerine.  Formerly 
glycerine  was  regarded  as  a  useless  by-product,  but 
since  the  advent  of  nitroglycerine  explosives,  glycerine 
has  become  a  most  important  source  of  profit  to  the 
soap  boiler,  and  its  price  has  in  consequence  risen  until 
it  is  almost  too  expensive  to  use  as  a  softener.  In 
certain  classes  of  pure  sizing,  however,  it  is  still 
employed. 

Pure  glycerine  is  a  colourless  and  odourless  thick 
liquid,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  1*26.  It  dissolves 
freely  in  water,  and  carries  with  it  none  of  the  liability 
to  tendering  that  follows  on  the  use  of  magnesium  or 
calcium  chlorides. 

As  in  the  case  of  other  deliquescents,  it  should  not 
be  used  without  an  antiseptic.  Owing  to  its  high 
price  glycerine  is  frequently  adulterated :  in  fact  I 
have  met  with  samples  of  so-called  glycerine  that 
contained  no  trace  whatever  of  this  substance. 

When  glycerine  is  heated  in  a  basin  it  boils  away, 
giving  off  inflammable  vapors  of  glycerine  mixed  with 
acrolein,  the  presence  of  which  causes  these  vapours 
to  be  very  irritating  to  the  eyes  and  throat.  It  is 
completely  volatile,  and  should  leave  neither  a  mass 
of  carbon  nor  a  fusible  mineral  residue.  Should  the 
residue  char,  the  presence  of  glucose  may  be  inferred. 
A  white  fusible  residue,  almost  completely  soluble  in 
water,  indicates  the  probable  presence  of  chlorides, 
usually  of  calcium  or  magnesium. 

These  are  confirmed  by  adding  either  to  the  original 
substance,  or  to  a  solution  of  the  residue  after  ignition, 


66  MATERIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

some  silver  nitrate.  A  white  curdy  precipitate  proves 
that  chlorides  are  present.  Glucose  is  detected  by  its 
reducing  action  on  Fehling's  solution  (see  p.  77). 

GLUCOSE. 

This  substance  comes  into  the  market  either  as  a 
colourless,  sweet  syrup,  closely  resembling  glycerine 
in  appearance,  or  as  soft  white  lumps. 

It  is  not  nearly  so  hygroscopic  as  the  softeners 
already  alluded  to.  It  is  more  used  for  finishing  than 
for  sizing.  It  is  an  excellent  nutritive  medium  for 
fungi:  so  that  cloth  containing  glucose  becomes 
mildewed  with  great  readiness,  unless  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  antiseptic  is  added  along  with  it.  Glucose 
syrup  is  often  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Glycerine 
Substitute." 


CHAPTEK  IV 

ANTISEPTICS 

THE  more  commonly  used  substances  added  to  size 
to  prevent  the  formation  of  mildew  in  the  cloth 
are — 

Zinc  chloride.  Phenol    (Carbolic  acid). 

Salicylic  acid.  Cresol. 

Thymol.  Formaldehyde. 

ZINC  CHLOEIDE  (ZnCl2). 

Zinc  Chloride  is  generally  prepared  by  the  action  of 
hydrochloric  acid  on  excess  of  metallic  zinc,  and 
evaporation  of  the  resulting  solution  to  a  density  of 
1-46  to  1-52. 

Any  iron  present  in  the  zinc  is  liable  to  go  into 
solution  as  ferrous  chloride.  In  order  to  remove  this, 
it  has  to  be  oxidised  to  ferric  chloride,  and  then 
precipitated  as  ferric  oxide  by  the  addition  of  zinc  or 
calcium  carbonate. 

The  best  method  of  oxidation,  but  a  slow  one,  is  to 
expose  the  solution  freely  to  the  air.  The  oxidation 
is  more  frequently  effected  by  adding  bleaching  powder. 
If  bleaching  powder  or  chalk  are  used  in  the  purifica- 
tion, calcium  chloride  is  of  necessity  introduced  into 
the  finished  article,  consequently  the  strength  of  a 
zinc  chloride  solution  cannot  be  safely  determined  by 
the  hydrometer,  until  the  absence  of  all  adulterants 
has  been  clearly  proved. 

Adulteration  of  zinc  chloride  is  extremely  objection- 
able. The  adulterated  article  is  not  only  reduced  in 

F  2 


68  MATEEIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 

money  value,  but  may  be  the  cause  of  serious  losses 
from  mildew,  as  the  sizer  will  be  led  into  the  addition 
of  insufficient  chloride  to  his  size  to  render  the  cloth 
antiseptic.  The  adulterants  to  be  looked  for  in  zinc 
chloride  are — 

Sodium  chloride.  Magnesium  sulphate. 

Calcium  chloride.  Sodium  sulphate. 

Impurities : 

Iron  chloride.  Ammonium  chloride. 

Lead  chloride.  Free  hydrochloric  acid. 

RECOGNITION  OF  ADULTERANTS. 

Sodium  Chloride. — This  is  detected  and  estimated 
as  already  described  under  "  Magnesium  Chloride," 
p.  61.  One  volume  of  zinc  chloride  is  mixed  with 
two  volumes  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid,  when  any 
salt  present  is  precipitated.  The  precipitate  can  be 
washed  with  hydrochloric  acid  till  free  from  zinc, 
dried  and  weighed.  Sodium  chloride  is  never  present 
in  zinc  chloride  unless  it  has  been  added  with  intent 
to  defraud. 

Calcium  Chloride,  Magnesium  Chloride. — Neither  of 
these  substances  will  be  found  naturally  in  zinc 
chloride  except  in  small  quantities  when  they  have 
been  used  to  remove  iron  salts  or  small  traces  of  free 
acid. 

Their  detection  and  estimation  is  carried  out  as 
follows : — 

About  a  gramme  of  the  sample  is  weighed  out  into 
a  flask  and  boiled  with  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid. 
Ammonium  chloride  and  excess  of  ammonia  are  then 
added,  followed  by  sufficient  ammonium  sulphide  to 
precipitate  all  the  zinc.  Zinc  sulphide  may  be  very 
difficult  to  filter.  At  first  it  passes  through  the  filter 
.paper ;  then  it  stops  up  the  pores  of  the  paper,  and 


ANTISEPTICS  69 

filtration  becomes  very  slow.  It  may,  however,  be 
brought  into  a  suitable  condition  for  filtration  by 
the  cautious  addition  of  mercuric  chloride  ;  the  black 
mercuric  sulphide  carrying  down  with  it  the  lighter 
and  finer  zinc  sulphide. 

The  precipitate  is  filtered  and  washed  till  free  from 
chlorides,  the  washings  being  added  to  the  bulk  of  the 
filtrate.  The  filtrate  is  now  brought  to  the  boil,  and 
crystals  of  ammonium  oxalate  dropped  in  until  no 
further  precipitate  forms.  It  is  well  to  remove  the 
flask  from  the  flame  before  adding  the  first  crystal  of 
ammonium  oxalate,  as  a  violent  ebullition  frequently 
results,  which  may  cause  the  contents  of  the  flask  to 
be  lost.  A  solution  of  ammonium  oxalate  should  not 
be  added,  as  the  precipitate  formed  in  this  case  is  very 
fine  and  cannot  be  filtered  until  it  has  been  allowed  to 
stand  in  a  warm  place  for  several  hours.  The  pre- 
cipitate formed  from  the  crystalline  oxalate  is  coarse, 
and  filters  readily  after  about  five  minutes  boiling. 
The  calcium  oxalate  is  filtered  off,  washed  and  ignited, 
finally  over  a  blow  pipe,  in  a  crucible  of  known  weight. 
The  calcium  oxalate  is  converted  into  calcium  oxide, 
and  is  weighed  as  such.  The  filtrate  and  washings 
from  the  calcium  oxalate  are  made  strongly  alkaline 
with  ammonia,  and  excess  of  sodium  hydrogen 
phosphate  is  added.  Magnesium  is  precipitated  as 
the  double  phosphate  MgNH4P04.  This  is  allowed  to 
stand  for  twelve  hours,  filtered,  and  washed  with  one 
volume  of  ammonia,  sp.  gr.  "880  to  two  volumes  of 
water,  until  free  from  the  sodium  salt.  The  pre- 
cipitate is  then  dried  and  ignited,  at  first  cautiously, 
and  then  finally  over  the  blow  pipe,  and  weighed  as 
magnesium  pyrophosphate  Mg2P207. 

112-4  parts  Mg2P207  =  95'4  parts  MgCl2. 

Magnesium  Sulphate,  Sodium  Sulphate. — The  sample 
is  acidified  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  barium  chloride 


70  MATEEIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

added.  A  white  precipitate  of  barium  sulphate 
indicates  the  presence  of  a  soluble  sulphate.  Both 
are  equally  objectionable,  as  they  are  not  antiseptic 
or  deliquescent.  If  it  is  desired  to  estimate  the 
quantity  of  sulphates  present,  certain  precautions 
must  be  taken,  or  the  barium  sulphate  will  not  be 
filterable. 

One  or  two  grammes  of  the  zinc  chloride  are 
weighed  into  a  flask,  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  diluted  with  about  100  c.c.  of  distilled 
water. 

About  2  grammes  of  barium  chloride  are  dissolved 
in  50  c.c.  of  water  in  another  flask  and  also  made 
acid  with  a  little  hydrochloric.  Both  solutions  are 
then  brought  to  the  boil,  the  barium  chloride  solution 
is  poured  into  the  boiling  zinc  chloride  solution,  and 
this  is  kept  boiling  for  five  minutes.  Precipitated  in 
this  way  the  barium  sulphate  is  quite  coarse,  and  can 
be  filtered  and  washed  without  any  trouble.  The 
precipitate  is  dried,  introduced  into  a  weighed  crucible 
and  ignited. 

When  the  filter  paper  is  all  burnt,  the  crucible  is 
allowed  to  cool  and  the  contents  moistened  with  one 
drop  of  strong  nitric  acid  and  two  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid.  The  acids  are  carefully  evaporated,  and  the 
crucible  heated  over  a  blow  pipe  until  the  weight  is 
constant. 

233-5  parts  BaS04  =  120*5  parts  MgS04. 
or  142-2  parts  Na2S04. 

Lead  Chloride. — Lead  will  only  be  present  in  zinc 
chloride  in  small  quantities,  but  it  is  a  highly  objection- 
able impurity  nevertheless.  It  is  not  easily  washed 
out  of  the  cloth,  and  remains  as  lead  oxide  after  the 
alkaline  scouring.  When  the  cloth  comes  to  be 
"  chemicked,"  it  is  converted  into  lead  peroxide:  and 
when  this  comes  to  be  boiled  a  second  time  with  alkali, 


ANTISEPTICS  71 

it  oxidises  the  cloth,  and  gives  rise  to  very  serious 
tendering. 

Lead  is  detected  by  adding  to  the  zinc  chloride 
solution  hydrochloric  acid,  followed  by  hydrogen 
sulphide. 

As  little  as  one  part  in  100,000  may  easily  be 
detected  by  the  brown  colouration  produced.  In  larger 
quantities  the  lead  will  be  precipitated  as  black  or 
brown  lead  sulphide. 

Iron  Chloride. — Ammonia  is  added  until  the  pre- 
cipitate of  zinc  hydrate  first  formed  is  redissolved, 
when  the  iron  will  remain  in  suspension  as  brown 
flocculent  ferric  hydroxide.  This  may  be  filtered  off, 
washed  free  from  zinc,  and  treated  on  the  filter  with 
acidulated  potassium  ferrocyanide.  Any  iron  present 
will  then  be  converted  into  Prussian  blue. 

The  Prussian  blue  test  cannot  be  applied  to  the 
original  liquor,  as  zinc  ferrocyanide  will  be  formed, 
and  will  mask  the  colour  of  Prussian  blue. 

Free  Acid. — Zinc  chloride  is  neutral  to  methyl 
orange.  Hence,  if  the  solution  reddens  methyl  orange, 
it  should  be  corrected  before  use  by  the  addition  of  a 
little  zinc  oxide  or  ammonia. 

The  Use  of  Zinc  Chloride  in  Sizing. — Zinc  chloride 
is  the  most  frequently  used  of  all  antiseptics.  It  is 
colourless,  odourless  and  cheap.  Like  magnesium 
chloride,  however,  it  decomposes  on  heating  into  free 
acid,  and  will  thus  cause  tendering  if  cloth  containing 
it  is  subjected  to  the  singeing  process  before  having 
been  washed.  It  has  been  found  by  experience  that 
when  flour  is  an  ingredient  of  the  size,  one  part  by 
weight  of  actual  zinc  chloride  must  be  added  for  every 
eight  parts  of  dry  flour  in  order  to  render  the  cloth 
immune  from  mildew.  Starches  do  not  present  such 
a  favourable  medium  for  the  growth  of  spores, 
and  one  part  of  zinc  chloride  will  sterilise  twelve 
parts  of  starch.  Highly  nitrogenous  ingredients 


72  MATEKIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

such  as  glue  or  casein  will  require  more  antiseptic 
than  flour. 

Zinc  chloride  is  very  soluble  in  water;  hence,  if  the 
cloth  should  happen  to  get  wet,  the  antiseptic  will  be 
washed  out  before  the  other  ingredients  of  the  size,  and 
goods  that  would  have  been  quite  safe  under  ordinary 
conditions  will  very  rapidly  be  ruined  if  they  have  been 
accidentally  rained  upon  before  shipment,  or  if  sea 
water  has  obtained  access  to  the  bales  on  the  voyage. 

The  author  has  seen  cloth,  properly  sized,  and 
shipped  in  airtight,  tin-lined  cases  that  had  become 
quite  mouldy.  This  disaster  was  traced  to  the  fact 
that  the  cloth  was  packed  rather  damp.  On  arrival 
at  the  Eastern  port  the  cases  stood  for  some  days  on 
the  quay  exposed  to  bright  sunshine.  This  had 
apparently  strongly  heated  one  side  of  the  cases,  and 
had  caused  the  excess  of  moisture  to  distil  over  and 
condense  on  the  cooler  side.  The  condensed  water 
had  dissolved  the  zinc  chloride  and  carried  it  away 
to  the  lower  portions  of  the  case  which  were  quite  wet, 
but  free  from  mildew.  This  had  developed  mainly 
along  the  one  edge  of  the  central  pieces  of  cloth, 
where  most  zinc  had  been  washed  out. 

The  fact  that  zinc  chloride  is  cheap,  and  very 
deliquescent,  renders  its  position  as  the  favourite  anti- 
septic almost  unassailable.  To  cloth  containing  20  per 
cent,  of  flour  there  must  have  been  added  nearly  3  per 
cent,  of  zinc  chloride,  and  this  will  attract  at  least 
3  per  cent,  of  moisture.  Thus  we  have  not  only  the 
antiseptic  property  to  consider,  for  which  the  zinc  was 
originally  added,  but  the  6  per  cent,  of  added  weight, 
and  the  softening  effect  to  which  no  numerical  value 
can  be  assigned. 

SALICYLIC  ACID  (C6H4.OH.COOH). 

Salicylic  Acid  is  a  white  crystalline  powder,  very 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  freely  soluble  on  boiling. 


ANTISEPTICS  78 

It  is  odourless,  and  unaffected  by  any  of  the  ordinary 
weighting  or  softening  ingredients  of  the  size. 

It  combines  with  alkalies  by  reason  of  its  acid 
character,  forming  neutral  salicylates,  whose  antiseptic 
power  is  only  one-third  that  of  the  acid.  Six  ounces 
of  salicylic  acid  will  completely  sterilise  100  Ibs.  of 
starch.  For  100  Ibs.  of  flour  8  ozs.  are  required. 
Salicylic  acid  may  be  recognised  by  the  intense  violet 
colour  produced  in  its  solution  on  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  ferric  chloride.  On  ignition  it  should  be 
completely  volatile. 

THYMOL  (C6H3.CH3.C3H7.OH). 

Thymol  forms  colourless  crystalline  plates,  very 
insoluble  in  cold  water  ;  a  saturated  solution  contain- 
ing only  3  per  cent.  It  has  a  feeble  aromatic  smell, 
and  a  burning  taste.  It  is  an  extremely  powerful 
antiseptic.  One  ounce  is  sufficient  to  sterilise  100  Ibs. 
of  starch  or  about  80  Ibs.  of  flour. 


PHENOL  (CARBOLIC  ACID) 

Phenol  is  obtained  from  coal  tar.  The  pure  substance 
forms  colourless  deliquescent  crystals,  which  take  up 
water  to  form  a  thick  heavy  oil.  This  oil  slowly 
dissolves  in  water,  a  saturated  solution  containing 
6  per  cent,  of  actual  phenol.  In  the  presence  of  a 
small  quantity  of  alkali  or  soap,  phenol  is  much  more 
soluble.  It  is  also  freely  soluble  in  glycerine.  A 
50  per  cent,  solution  in  glycerine  is  miscible  to  any 
extent  with  water.  Pure  phenol  has  a  characteristic 
and  by  no  means  disagreeable  smell,  but  the  cheaper, 
impure  varieties  possess  a  harsh  smoky  odour,  which 
forms  an  insuperable  bar  to  their  extended  use  as 
antiseptics  in  sizing.  Ten  ounces  of  crystallised 
carbolic  acid  are  sufficient  to  protect  100  Ibs.  of  starch 
or  80  Ibs.  of  flour.  The  crude  varieties  can  be  valued 


74  MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

chemically,  but  the  results  are  not  very  reliable.  The 
most  satisfactory  method  is  to  prepare  a  quantity  of 
10  per  cent,  flour  paste,  to  divide  this  into  equal 
portions,  and  to  add  to  each  portion  a  known  per- 
centage of  the  samples  to  be  compared.  The  pastes 
are  then  spread  out  into  glass  plates,  or  poured  into 
shallow  dishes,  and  kept  under  observation  in  a  warm 
damp  place  until  mildew7  appears.  From  the  length 
of  time  before  its  appearance,  and  the  vigour  of  its 
subsequent  development,  very  reliable  inferences  can 
be  drawn  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  samples  being 
tested. 

CRESOL  (C6H4.CH3.OH). 

In  all  its  essential  properties  cresol  closely  resembles 
phenol.  Its  antiseptic  power  is  the  same  as  that  of 
phenol,  but  the  smell  is,  if  anything,  somewhat  more 
disagreeable. 

Cresol  and  crude  carbolic  acid  are  both  frequently 
adulterated  with  tar  oils  ;  substances  of  no  antiseptic 
properties  whatever.  These  may  be  roughly  estimated 
as  follows  : — 

A  known  volume  of  the  sample  is  placed  in  a 
stoppered,  graduated  cylinder.  Four  times  its  volume 
of  10  per  cent,  caustic  soda  solution  is  added,  and  the 
mixture  well  shaken.  The  antiseptic  will  dissolve  in 
the  caustic  soda,  whilst  the  inactive  oils  will  form  a 
layer  on  the  surface  of  the  aqueous  liquor.  Should 
the  two  layers  not  separate  readily,  a  known  volume 
of  benzene  may  be  added,  and  the  shaking  repeated. 
The  volume  of  the  upper,  oily  layer  is  then  read  off 
(and  the  volume  of  benzene  which  has  been  added, 
deducted).  From  the  difference  the  percentage  by 
volume  of  oils  can  be  calculated. 

FOEMIC  ALDEHYDE  (H.CHO). 

This  substance  is  sold  as  a  40  per  cent,  aqueous 
solution  under  the  name  of  Formalin.  It  is  prepared 


ANTISEPTICS  75 

by  the  limited  oxidation  of  methyl  alcohol,  the  gaseous 
product  of  the  reaction  being  condensed  in  water.  It 
is  an  excellent  antiseptic,  but  since  it  is  volatile,  it  is 
liable  to  be  evaporated  out  of  the  warps  during  drying. 
Formalin,  when  added  to  solutions  of  gelatine  or  casein, 
causes  instant  coagulation  ;  and  after  drying,  the 
coagulated  mass  becomes  quite  insoluble  in  water  or 
dilute  alkalies. 

Estimation. — Formic  aldehyde  combines  with 
ammonia  to  form  an  insoluble  compound,  hexa- 
methylene  tetramine. 

6H.CHO  +  4NH3  =  (CH2)6H4  +  6H20. 

A  known  weight  of  formalin  is  mixed  with  excess  of 
ammonia,  and  the  ammonia  left  uncombined  is  titrated 
back  with  hydrochloric  acid,  using  methyl  orange  as 
indicator. 

1  c.c.  Normal  HC1  =  *017  grammes  NH3 

=  -045  grammes  H.CHO. 


CHAPTER  V 

ANALYSIS    OF    SIZED    WARPS    AND    CLOTH 

BEFORE  the  quantitative  analysis  of  a  sample  of  sized 
cotton  can  be  undertaken  it  is  necessary  to  discover  the 
nature  of  the  ingredients  that  have  to  be  estimated. 

The  sample  is  shaken  with  cold  water  and  the 
solution  filtered. 

The  filtrate  may  contain — 

Dextrin. 

Glucose. 

Glycerine. 

Sulphates     and     chlorides     of     Zinc,     Calcium, 

Magnesium  and  Sodium. 
Phenol,  and  other  organic  antiseptics. 

The  sample  is  boiled  with  water  and  the  solution 
filtered.  The  filtrate  may  contain — 

Starch.  Gums. 

Gelatine  or  Glue.  Soap. 

Casein. 

Another  portion  of  the  sample  is  burnt.  The  ash 
may  contain — 

China  clay.  The  mineral  salts  already 

Barium,  sulphate.  enumerated. 

Cold  Water  Extract. — Add  a  drop  of  iodine  solution. 
A  blue,  purple  or  brown  colouration  indicates  dextrin. 
The  more  the  colouration  tends  towards  brown,  the 
more  highly  converted  was  the  dextrin  employed. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SIZED  WAEPS  AND  CLOTH    77 

To  another  portion  of  the  extract  add  ammonium 
chloride,  ammonia  and  ammonium  sulphide.  A  white 
precipitate  indicates  zinc.  Filter  if  necessary,  add 
ammonium  carbonate  and  boil.  A  white  precipitate 
indicates  calcium.  The  nitrate  is  divided  into  two 
portions.  To  one  portion  add  sodium  phosphate.  A 
white  precipitate  forming  slowly  indicates  magnesium. 

The  other  half  of  the  filtrate  is  evaporated  to  dry- 
ness  and  ignited.  If  there  was  no  magnesium  found, 
any  residue  will  consist  of  sodium  salts.  If  mag- 
nesium was  present,  a  portion  of  the  residue  is  taken 
up  on  a  platinum  wire  and  held  in  a  Bunsen  flame. 
An  intense  yellow  colouration  of  the  flame  indicates 
sodium. 

Another  portion  of  the  cold  water  extract  is 
examined  for  chlorides  by  the  addition  of  a  little 
nitric  acid  and  silver  nitrate. 

Sulphates  are  detected  in  another  portion  by  the 
white  precipitate  of  barium  sulphate  formed  on  the 
addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  barium  chloride. 

The  remainder  of  the  cold  water  extract  is  evapo- 
rated almost  to  dryness  on  the  water  bath.  The 
organic  antiseptics  will  be  recognisable  in  the  residue 
by  their  smell. 

Glucose  is  detected  by  boiling  a  few  drops  of  the 
residue  with  weak  Fehling's  solution.  Glucose  causes 
a  yellow  or  red  precipitate  of  cuprous  oxide  to  be 
formed.  If  the  quantity  of  glucose  present  is  only 
very  small,  it  may  merely  produce  a  green  or  yellow 
opalescence  in  the  solution. 

Glycerine  is  detected  by  adding  a  few  grammes  of 
potassium  hydrogen  sulphate  to  the  residue  and 
heating  gently.  If  any  glycerine  is  present  it  will  be 
decomposed  into  acrolein  which  is  recognised  by  its 
intensely  irritating  effect  on  the  eyes  and  nose.  The 
smell  suggests  burning  fat,  or  a  candle  that  has  just 
been  blown  out. 


78  MATERIALS  USED   IN   SIZING 

Hot  Water  Extract. — Cool  and  add  a  drop  of  iodine 
solution.  Starch  gives  an  intense  blue  colour.  The 
remainder  of  the  extract  is  evaporated  nearly  to 
dryness  on  the  water  bath. 

Glue  and  Casein  will  emit  their  characteristic  odours, 
and  can  be  recognised  by  the  addition  of  a  small 
quantity  of  tannic  acid  to  a  portion  of  the  residue. 
Both  glue  and  casein  yield  curdy  precipitates. 

Another  portion  of  the  residue  is  acidulated  with  a 
drop  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  A  turbidity,  which  dis- 
appears on  warming,  giving  place  to  oily  drops,  and 
the  characteristic  rancid  smell  of  fatty  acids,  indicates 
the  presence  of  soap. 

The  gums,  such  as  tragacanth,  tragasol  and  Irish 
moss  will  also  be  present  in  the  residue,  but  they 
present  no  definite  chemical  properties  by  which  they 
can  be  recognised.  Their  presence  can  only  be  inferred 
from  the  appearance  of  the  residue. 

Residue  after  Incineration. — The  residue,  which 
must  be  ignited  until  quite  white,  is  boiled  with  water, 
filtered  and  well  washed.  The  filtrate  will  contain  all 
the  soluble  mineral  matters.  The  insoluble  portions 
will  contain  all  the  china  clay  and  barium  sulphate, 
together  with  some  calcium  and  magnesium  com- 
pounds, which  have  become  insoluble  during  the 
ignition. 

Wash  the  insoluble  portion  out  of  the  filter  and  boil 
for  at  least  15  minutes  in  a  5  per  cent,  solution  of 
sodium  carbonate,  replacing  the  water  as  it  evaporates. 
Filter.  To  the  filtrate  add  hydrochloric  acid  in  excess, 
and  then  barium  chloride.  Any  white  precipitate  of 
barium  sulphate  indicates  calcium  or  barium  sulphates. 
The  solution  may  become  gelatinous  after  the  addition 
of  the  acid.  This  is  due  to  silicic  acid,  extracted  from 
the  china  clay  by  the  sodium  carbonate. 

The  insoluble  residue,  after  boiling  with  sodium 
carbonate,  will  contain  aluminium  hydroxide  from  the 


ANALYSIS  OF  SIZED  WARPS  AND  CLOTH     79 

clay,  whilst  the  calcium,  barium  and  magnesium  com- 
pounds will  have  been  converted  into  carbonates.  Wash 
well,  boil  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  filter. 

To  the  filtrate  add  ammonium  chloride  and 
ammonia.  The  presence  of  china  clay  in  the  size  will 
be  indicated  by  the  formation  of  a  white  flocculent 
precipitate  of  aluminium  hydroxide. 

Filter,  add  ammonium  carbonate  and  boil.  Calcium 
and  barium  are  precipitated  as  carbonates. 

Filter  and  wash  the  precipitate.  The  filtrate  is 
examined  for  magnesium  as  before. 

The  carbonate  precipitate  is  treated  with  boiling 
dilute  acetic  acid.  To  the  solution  is  added  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.  A  white  precipitate  indicates  barium. 
Filter  off  and  add  excess  of  ammonia  and  ammonium 
oxalate.  Calcium  is  precipitated  as  calcium  oxalate. 

QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSIS. 

A  portion  of  the  sample  is  weighed,  and  heated  in 
a  steam  oven  until  dry.  As  cotton  rapidly  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  air,  all  weighings  should  be  carried 
out  with  the  sample  enclosed  in  a  stoppered  weighing 
bottle.  The  loss  in  weight  gives  the  total  moisture. 
The  same  portion  is  then  boiled  for  1  hour  in  a 
large  volume  of  1  per  cent,  caustic  soda  solution,  well 
washed,  boiled  for  1  hour  in  '5  per  cent,  hydrochloric 
acid  solution,  very  well  washed,  and  dried.  The  loss 
in  weight  gives  the  Total  Size.  Finally  the  sample  is 
allowed  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  air,  after  which  it 
is  again  weighed.  The  increase  in  weight  gives  the 
natural  moisture  in  the  cotton. 

A  second  piece  of  the  sample,  weighing  about  10 
grammes,  is  extracted  for  1  hour  in  the  apparatus 
shown  in  Fig.  6. 

C  is  a  dry  weighed  flask,  standing  on  the  water  bath 
D.  It  should  hold  from  150  to  250  c.c.  C  is  connected 


80 


MATEEIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


airtight  by  means  of  a 
cork  to  the  Soxhlet  ex- 
tractor B,  inside  which 
is  placed  the  weighed 
portion  of  the  sample. 
The  condenser  A  is  fitted 
to  the  top  of  the  Soxhlet. 
About  50  c.c.  of  light 
petrol,  purified  as  des- 
cribed on  p.  55,  are  placed 
in  the  flask  C,  and  the 
water  bath  heated  to  such 
a  temperature  that  the 
petrol  drops  rapidly  from 
the  lower  end  of  A.  At 
the  end  of  the  hour  the 
light  under  the  water 
bath  is  turned  out,  and 
the  flask  C  disconnected. 
Any  petrol  remaining  in 
B  is  poured  back  into 
the  stock  bottle,  and  the 
cloth  preserved  for  future 
use.  The  flask  C  is  now 
connected  to  another 
condenser,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  5,  p.  56,  by  means  of 
the  cork  and  bent  tube  E. 
The  petrol  distils  over, 
and  is  collected  in  the 
flask  F.  It  may  be  used 
over  and  over  again. 

It  should  be  remem- 
bered that  petrol  gives 
off  inflammable  vapours, 
even  at  ordinary  tem- 
peratures. The  vapours 


FIG.  6. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SIZED  WAKPS  AND  CLOTH    81 

are  very  heavy,  and  flow  like  water  along  the  surface 
of  a  bench,  so  that  it  is  quite  possible  for  a  flask 
containing  petrol  to  take  fire  from  a  burner  2  yards 
away  on  the  bench.  It  should  be  made  a  rule 
that  before  any  flask  containing  petrol  is  either  con- 
nected or  disconnected  from  the  extractor  or  condenser 
all  lights  on  the  working  bench  must  be  turned  out. 
A  flask  is  liable  to  slip  from  the  fingers  occasionally 
and  drop  into  the  hot  water  bath.  If  there  are  any 
flames  near  a  conflagration  is  inevitable.  Nothing 
can  be  done  until  the  flames  begin  to  moderate,  except 
to  turn  off  the  gas  supply  at  the  main. 

As  the  supply  of  petrol  becomes  exhausted,  the 
burning  places  should  be  covered  over  with  wet  dusters 
or  towels  in  order  to  prevent  unnecessary  destruction 
of  woodwork  and  apparatus.  It  perhaps  goes  without 
saying  that  the  stock  bottle  of  petrol  should  be  stored 
as  far  away  as  possible  from  the  place  where  the 
extractor  is  used. 

When  as  much  petrol  as  possible  has  distilled  over, 
the  lights  are  put  out  again,  C  is  disconnected,  and  a 
current  of  air  blown  into  its  mouth  to  dissipate  the 
remainder  of  the  petrol.  When  this  has  gone,  the 
flask  is  kept  on  the  boiling  water  bath  for  a  short 
time,  blown  once  more,  cooled,  and  weighed.  The 
increase  in  weight  gives  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the 
sample. 

There  is  usually  not  sufficient  fat  to  allow  of  a 
chemical  analysis  being  made  for  its  recognition. 
Generally  it  can  be  recognised  by  the  smell  and  ap- 
pearance. Should  an  analysis  be  essential,  sufficient 
of  the  sample  must  be  extracted  to  yield  in  all  3  or 
4  grammes  of  fat. 

The  fat-free  sample  is  now  burnt  in  a  weighed 
platinum  crucible.  The  weight  of  ash  found  is  not, 
however,  the  weight  of  the  mineral  matter  in  the 
original  sample,  since  various  substances  lose  more 

s.  G 


82  MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

water  on  ignition  than  they  do  when  heated  in  the 
water  oven.  If  china  clay  is  present,  11  per  cent, 
should  be  added  to  its  weight,  whilst  the  percentage  of 
calcium  sulphate  found  has  to  be  increased  by  2H  per 
cent.  If  other  mineral  matters  besides  china  clay 
have  been  found,  the  ash  is  warmed  with  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  a  few  drops  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
It  is  then  taken  up  with  water  and  filtered  whilst 
hot.  The  filtrate  is  boiled  with  a  little  nitric  acid, 
and  ammonium  chloride  and  excess  of  ammonia  added. 

This  will  precipitate  alumina  derived  from  the  china 
clay.  To  the  filtrate  is  then  added  ammonium 
sulphide  to  precipitate  the  zinc  as  zinc  sulphide.  The 
precipitate  is  filtered  through  a  filter  paper,  the 
weight  of  whose  ash  is  known,  and  well  washed.  The 
filter  paper  is  then  carefully  ignited  in  a  weighed 
crucible.  The  increase  in  weight,  minus  the  weight 
of  the  filter  paper  ash,  is  zinc  oxide. 

The  calcium  in  the  filtrate  from  the  zinc  sulphide  is 
next  precipitated  as  follows.  The  liquor  is  brought  to 
the  boil,  and  small  crystals  of  ammonium  oxalate  are 
thrown  into  the  flask  as  long  as  any  precipitate  of 
calcium  oxalate  forms.  The  calcium  oxalate  produced 
in  this  way  is  coarse  and  easy  to  filter.  If  the 
ammonium  oxalate  is  added  in  solution,  the  precipitate 
is  very  fine,  and  has  to  be  allowed  to  stand  for  12 
hours  before  it  can  be  filtered. 

The  calcium  oxalate  is  filtered  through  a  filter 
paper  with  known  weight  of  ash,  ignited  in  a  crucible, 
at  first  carefully,  finally  over  a  blow-pipe,  and  weighed 
as  calcium  oxide.  To  the  filtrate  from  the  calcium 
oxalate  is  added  strong  ammonia  and  sodium  phos- 
phate. The  magnesium  is  precipitated  as  MgNH^PO^ 
This  substance  is  slightly  soluble  in  water ;  it  must  be 
washed  with  weak  ammonia  solution,  and  weighed 
after  ignition  as  Mg2P207. 

111-4  parts  Mg2P207  =  24'4  parts  Mg. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SIZED  WARPS  AND  CLOTH    83 

If  barium  sulphate  is  known  to  be  present,  it  must 
be  determined  in  the  insoluble  residue  left  after  heat- 
ing the  original  ash  with  hydrochloric  acid. 

The  filter  paper  and  residue  are  introduced  into  a 
platinum  crucible,  dried  and  ignited,  after  which 
sodium  carbonate  is  added,  and  the  mixture  heated 
over  the  blow-pipe  until  a  clear  melt,  free  from 
bubbles,  is  obtained.  The  crucible  is  now  allowed  to 
cool ;  it  is  then  placed  on  its  side  in  a  beaker  half  full 
of  water,  and  kept  on  the  water  bath  until  all  of  the 
cake  has  been  dissolved  out.  The  turbid  solution  is 
filtered  and  the  residue  thoroughly  washed,  the 
washings  being  thrown  away,  after  which  boiling  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid  is  poured  on  to  the  filter  to  dissolve 
the  barium  carbonate.  After  well  washing  the  filter, 
the  filtrate  is  brought  to  the  boil,  and  boiling  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  added  in  slight  excess.  The  boiling 
is  continued  for  5  minutes,  and  then  the  barium 
sulphate  is  allowed  to  settle.  It  is  finally  washed  with 
boiling  water  on  to  a  filter  paper,  and  ignited  in  a 
weighed  platinum  crucible.  After  all  the  paper  is 
burnt,  the  residue  is  moistened  with  one  drop  of 
strong  nitric  acid,  and  one  drop  of  strong  sulphuric 
acid,  ignited  and  weighed  as  barium  sulphate. 

The  Soluble  Sulphates  and  Chlorides  have  next  to  be 
determined.  For  this  purpose  about  30  grammes  of 
the  sample  are  placed  in  a  large  basin,  and  100  c.c.  of 
cold  distilled  water  poured  on  to  it.  The  sample  is 
well  worked  in  the  water,  and  is  then  squeezed  out 
into  a  500  c.c.  flask,  any  water  remaining  in  the  basin 
being  also  poured  into  the  flask.  The  sample  is 
washed  six  times  in  this  way,  until  the  flask  is  full  up 
to  the  mark.  When  the  contents  of  the  flask  have 
settled  quite  clear,  portions  of  50  c.c.  or  100  c.c.  are 
pipetted  out  for  analysis. 

The  chlorides  are  determined  by  titration  with 
N/10  silver  nitrate,  using  potassium  chromate  as 

G  2 


84  MATERIALS  USED  IN  SIZING 

indicator.  A  permanent  red  colour  is  produced  in  the 
milky  liquor  as  soon  as  all  the  chlorides  have  been 
precipitated. 

1  c.c.  of  N/10  solution  AgN03  =  '00355  gr.  Chlorine. 

The  sulphates  are  precipitated  as  barium  sulphate. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  filterable  precipitate,  the  solution 
containing  the  sulphates  is  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid  and  brought  to  the  boil. 

A  10  per  cent  solution  of  barium  chloride  is  also 
acidulated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  brought  to  the  boil 
and  poured  at  once  into  the  boiling  sulphate  solution. 

The  precipitate  is  ignited,  treated  with  nitric  and 
sulphuric  acids,  ignited  again,  and  finally  weighed  as 
barium  sulphate. 

233  parts  BaS04  =  96  parts  S04. 

It  is  not  possible  to  determine  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  starch,  dextrin,  glue,  etc.,  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy,  and  of  course  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
determine,  except  from  the  feel  of  the  sample,  what 
starches  have  been  used.  The  percentages  of  the 
various  ingredients  found  are  added  up  and  deducted 
from  100,  the  difference  being  returned  as  starchy 
matters. 

The  weight  of  starch  calculated  in  this  way  is  not, 
however,  the  true  weight  of  starch  in  the  sample.  The 
weight  of  the  total  size  has  been  determined  only  after 
complete  drying.  Starch  in  its  natural  condition 
contains  on  the  average  15  per  cent,  of  moisture. 
Hence  the  weight  of  starch  calculated  by  difference 
has  to  be  increased  by  1 5  per  cent,  to  give  the  true 
weight  of  the  starch  present,  and  this  moisture 
deducted  from  the  total  moisture  found. 

China  clay  is  similarly  determined  by  difference, 
when  the  ash  contains  more  than  one  kind  of  mineral 
matter. 


ANALYSIS  OF  SIZED  WARPS  AND  CLOTH    85 

All  the  component  parts  of  the  sample  have  now 
been  determined,  but  we  still  have  to  allocate  the 
metals  to  their  respective  acid  radicles. 

The  actual  weights  of  clay  and  barium  sulphate  are 
known  ;  also  the  weights  of  Cl,  S04  and  Mg. 

Zinc  and  calcium  have  been  weighed  as  oxides. 

81  parts  ZnO  =  65  of  Zn. 
56  parts  CaO  =  40  of  Ca. 

A  consideration  of  the  following  table  of  combining 
weights  together  with  the  known  character  of  the 
sample,  should  enable  us  to  form  a  fairly  accurate  idea 
of  the  actual  compounds  used  in  making  the  size. 

Metals.  Acid  radicles. 

Zinc:  65.  S04:  96. 

Calcium:  40.  Cl :  85'5. 

Magnesium:  21. 
Sodium :  46. 

Sodium  has  not  been  estimated,  but  if  its  presence 
has  been  detected  in  the  preliminary  qualitative 
analysis,  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  an  excess  of  acid 
radicle  for  which  no  metal  has  been  found.  This  is 
then  calculated  into  the  corresponding  quantity  of 
sodium  sulphate  or  chloride. 

The  complete  analysis  of  a  sample  of  warp  or  cloth 
is  usually  set  out  in  the  following  manner. 

Percentage  of  cotton      .... 
Percentage  of  natural  moisture 
Percentage  of  size          . 

The  size  contains — 

Mineral  matters      .... 
Fats  and  oils  .... 

Starches 

Other  organic  substances 
Moisture        , 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE    PREPARATION    OF    NORMAL   VOLUMETRIC    SOLUTIONS 

THE  volumetric  solutions  required  for  the  analyses 
described  in  the  foregoing  chapters  are  the  following : — 

Normal  hydrochloric  acid. 

Normal  caustic  soda. 

Half  normal  alcoholic  caustic  potash. 

One-tenth  normal  sodium  thiosulphate. 

One-tenth  normal  silver  nitrate. 

Various  methods  have  been  recommended  for  the 
preparation  of  standard  solutions  of  acids  and  alkalies. 
The  use  of  sodium  carbonate  is  perhaps  the  most 
simple. 

The  first  step  is  the  preparation  of  an  approximately 
normal  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid.  This  solution 
should  contain  36*5  grammes  of  actual  HC1  per  litre. 

Pure  strong  hydrochloric  acid  is  taken,  and  its 
density  at  15°  C.  determined  by  means  of  a  hydro- 
meter or  Westphal  balance.  From  the  density  we 
can  calculate  the  volume  of  acid  which,  when  diluted 
to  1  or  2  litres,  will  give  a  solution  of  tbe  desired 
strength.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  exact  strength 
of  the  acid,  it  must  be  standardised  against  pure  dry 
sodium  carbonate. 

From  6  to  10  grammes  of  pure  anhydrous  sodium 
carbonate  are  placed  in  a  platinum  crucible,  which 


NORMAL  VOLUMETRIC   SOLUTIONS      87 

should  not  be  more  than  half  full.  The  crucible  is  so 
arranged  over  a  small  burner  that  its  bottom  is  heated 
to  a  just  visible  dull  red.  The  sodium  carbonate  is 
gently  stirred  with  a  platinum  wire  for  about  20 
minutes,  and  then  poured,  whilst  still  hot,  into  a  clean, 
dry  test  tube,  which  is  at  once  corked,  and  placed  in  a 
dessicator  until  cool.  When  cool,  the  test  tube  is 
weighed,  and  about  1*5  to  2  grammes  poured  out  into 
a  clean  dry  flask.  The  cork  is  at  once  replaced,  and 
the  amount  of  carbonate  poured  out  ascertained  by 
re-weighing  the  test  tube.  Three  or  four  lots  of 
sodium  carbonate  are  weighed  out  in  this  way.  Each 
lot  is  then  dissolved  in  about  50  c.c.  of  cold  water, 
and  sufficient  alcoholic  solution  of  methyl  orange  (1 
gramme  per  litre)  added  to  tint  the  solution  a  just 
visible  yellow.  The  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  is 
now  brought  by  warming  or  cooling  to  15°  C.,  and  its 
volume  adjusted  exactly  to  the  mark  on  the  neck  of  the 
graduated  flask.  A  burette,  graduated  in  j1^  c.c.  is 
tilled  with  the  acid,  and  the  volume  determined  that 
just  causes  the  clear  yellow  colour  of  the  sodium 
carbonate  solution  to  become  tinged  with  brown.  A 
rosy  pink  indicates  that  too  much  acid  has  been  added. 

As  it  is  not  always  quite  easy  to  decide  the  exact 
point  of  the  colour  change,  it  is  well  to  use  the  contents 
of  the  first  flask  after  titration  as  a  colour  standard. 
The  colour  is  brought  back  to  yellow  by  the  addition 
of  a  drop  of  alkali,  and  then  this  flask  and  the  one 
being  titrated  are  placed  side  by  side  on  a  sheet 
of  white  paper,  when  the  least  change  in  colour  of  the 
second  flask  can  be  seen  at  once. 

A  normal  solution  of  sodium  carbonate  contains 
53  grammes  Na2COs  per  litre,  and  a  given  volume  of 
this  would  be  neutralised  by  the  same  volume  of  normal 
hydrochloric  acid.  Hence  we  can  calculate  the  volume 
of  normal  acid  that  the  weight  of  sodium  carbonate 
taken  for  the  titration  should  require. 


88  MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 

This  volume  V  will  be  given  by  the  formula 


where  W  is  the  weight  of  sodium  carbonate  taken. 

If  V  is  exactly  equal  to  the  volume  of  hydrochloric 
acid  used,  the  acid  is  normal.  Usually,  however,  this 
volume  will  be  either  more  or  less  than  F,  indicating 
that  the  acid  is  actually  weaker  or  stronger  than 
normal.  It  is  not  advisable  to  try  to  adjust  the 
strength  of  the  solution  until  it  is  correct.  It  is 
simpler  and  just  as  accurate  to  work  out  a  "factor" 
If  v  be  the  volume  of  acid  taken  in  the  titration  for  W 

grammes  of  sodium  carbonate,  then  the  factor  for  the 
y 

acid  will  be  —  .     This  factor  is  inscribed  on  the  label 

v 

of  the  bottle,  and  in  every  future  analysis,  the  volume 
of  acid  used  for  a  titration  is  multiplied  by  the  factor. 

NORMAL  CAUSTIC  SODA. 

A  formal  caustic  soda  solution  should  contain 
40  grammes  of  sodium  hydroxide  per  litre-  Forty-two 
to  45  grammes  of  pure  caustic  are  weighed  out 
and  dissolved  to  1,000  c.c.  in  water  that  has  been 
recently  boiled  and  cooled,  to  expel  carbon  dioxide. 
The  solution  is  allowed  to  stand  until  it  has  attained 
the  same  temperature  as  the  standard  HC1.  This 
eliminates  all  corrections  for  differences  in  temperature. 
Twenty  c.c.  of  the  caustic  solution  are  pipetted  into 
a  flask  and  titrated  with  methyl  orange  just  in  the 
same  way  as  the  sodium  carbonate. 

If  v  be  the  volume  of  hydrochloric  acid  required  by 
20  c.c.  of  the  caustic  solution,  then  this  volume  is  equiva- 
lent to  (v  X  HCl  factor)  c.c.  of  truly  normal  caustic. 
Hence  the  factor  of  the  caustic  soda  solution  will  be 
v  X  HCl  factor 
20  ' 


NORMAL  VOLUMETRIC   SOLUTIONS      89 

SEMI-NORMAL  ALCOHOLIC  CAUSTIC  POTASH. 

No  factor  is  required  for  this  solution,  as  it  is  never 
used  without  a  "  blank  "  titration  by  means  of  which 
the  factor  is  ascertained  every  time  it  is  used. 

Thirty  grammes  of  pure  caustic  potash  are  dissolved 
in  30  c.c.  of  water,  and  diluted  to  1,000  c.c.  with  recti- 
fied spirit.  A  certain  amount  of  potassium  carbonate 
always  separates  out  from  this  solution.  Care  should 
be  taken  when  making  an  analysis  that  none  of  this 
is  drawn  up  into  the  pipette. 

DECI-NORMAL  SODIUM  THIOSULPHATE. 

The  sodium  thiosulphate  sold  as  pure  is  quite  free 
from  all  impurities  except  moisture.  About  30  grammes 
are  finely  ground  and  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer 
between  two  white  sheets  of  hard-faced  filter  paper. 
After  24  hours  all  excess  of  moisture  should  have  dis- 
appeared. 24'83  grammes  of  the  powder  are  weighed 
out  and  made  up  to  1,000  c.c.  The  solution  does  not 
maintain  its  strength  for  very  long  even  in  the  dark. 
For  accurate  work  its  tike  should  not  be  relied  on 
after  it  is  three  months  old. 

DECI-NORMAL  SILVER  NITRATE. 

Exactly  17  grammes  of  pure  silver  nitrate  are  made 
up  to  1,000  c.c.  with  distilled  water.  The  solution 
should  be  kept  in  a  bottle  covered  with  black  paper  or 
Brunswick  black. 


CHAPTEK  VII 


TABLES 


DENSITY   OF  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID   SOLUTIONS    (LUNGE   AND 
MARCHLEWSKl). 


03 

£0 

M 

P 

Degrees, 
Beaum6. 

Degrees, 
Twaddell.  | 

Per  cent. 
HCI. 

§8 

j!J 

5"" 

3 
&$ 

f 

Degrees, 
Beaume. 

Degrees, 
Twaddell. 

43 

Id 

fe« 

p-< 

GO 
Eg 
•      • 

—   fl 

B*" 

•000 

0-0 

0-0 

0-16 

0-0016 

•115 

14-9 

23 

22-86 

0-255 

•005 

0-7 

1 

1-15 

0-012 

•120 

15-4 

24 

23-82 

0-267 

•010 

1-4 

2 

2-14 

0-022 

•125 

16-0 

25 

24-78 

0-278 

•015 

2-1 

3 

3-12 

0-032 

•130 

16-5 

26 

25-75 

0-291 

•020 

2-7 

4 

4-13 

0-042 

•135 

17-1 

27 

26-70 

0-303 

•025 

3-4 

5 

5-15 

0-053 

•140 

17-7 

28 

27-66 

0-315 

•030 

4-1 

6 

6-15 

0-064 

•1425 

18-0 

— 

28-14 

0-322 

•035 

4-7 

7 

7-15 

0-074 

•145 

18-3 

29 

28-61 

0-328 

•040 

5-4 

8 

8-16 

0-085 

•150 

18-8 

30 

29-57 

0-340 

•045 

6-0 

9 

9-16 

0-096 

•152 

19-0 

— 

29-95 

0-345 

•050 

6-7 

10 

10-17 

0-107 

•155 

19-4 

31 

30-55 

0-353 

•055 

7-4 

11 

11-18 

0-118 

•160 

19-8 

32 

31-52 

0-366 

•060 

8-0 

12 

12-19 

0-129 

•163 

20-0 

— 

32-10 

0-373 

•065 

8-7 

13 

13-19 

0-141 

•165 

20-3 

33 

32-49 

0-379 

•070 

9-4 

14114-17 

0-152 

•170 

20-9 

34 

33-46 

0-392 

•075 

10-0 

15  15-16 

0-163 

•171 

21-0 

— 

33-65 

0-394 

•080 

10-6 

16  16-15 

0-174 

•175 

21-4 

35 

34-42 

0-404 

•085 

11-2 

17 

17-13 

0-186 

•180 

22-0 

36 

35-39 

0-418 

•090 

11-9 

18 

18-11 

0-197 

•185 

22-5 

37 

36-31 

0-430 

•095 

12-4 

19 

19-06 

0-209 

•190 

23-0 

38 

37-23 

0-443 

1-100 

13-0 

20  !20-01 

0-220 

•195 

23-5 

39 

38-16 

0-456 

1-105 

13-6 

21  20-97 

0-232 

•200 

24-0 

40 

39-11 

0-469 

1-110 

14-2 

22 

21-92 

0-243 

TABLES 


91 


DENSITY  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID  SOLUTIONS  (LANGE,  ISLER, 
AND  NAEF). 


Density  at 
15°  C. 

Degrees, 
Beaume. 

Degrees, 
Twa'ddell. 

Per  cent. 
H2S04. 

0 

^% 
W°-« 

03  r"1    U 

—   C 

5 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

o>""2 

|CS 
fira 

Degrees, 
Twaddeli. 

Per  cent. 
H2SO4. 

go 
B*.<3 

l.sd 

'-2 

1-000 

0 

0 

0-09 

0-001 

1-185 

22-5 

37 

25-40 

0-301 

1-005 

0-7 

1 

0-95 

0-009 

1-190 

23-0 

38 

26-04 

0-310 

1-010 

1-4 

2 

1-57 

0-016 

1-195 

23-5 

39 

26-68 

0-319 

1-015 

2-1 

3 

2-30 

0-023 

1-200 

24-0 

40 

27-32 

0-328 

1-020 

2-7 

4 

3-03 

0-031 

1-205 

24-5 

41 

27-95 

0-337 

1-025 

3-4 

5 

3-76 

0-039 

1-210 

25-0 

42 

28-58 

0-346 

1-030 

4-1 

6 

4-49 

0-046 

1-215 

25-5 

43 

29-21 

0-355 

1-035 

4-7 

7 

5-23 

0-054 

1-220 

26-0 

44 

29-84 

0-364 

1-040 

5-4 

8 

5-96 

0-062 

1-225 

26-4 

45 

30-48 

0-373 

1-045 

6-0 

9 

6-67 

0-071 

1-230 

26-9 

46 

31-11 

0-382 

1-050 

6-7 

10 

7-37 

0-077 

1-235 

27-4 

47 

31-70 

0-391 

1-055 

7-4 

11 

8-07 

0-085 

1-240 

27-9 

48 

32-28 

0-400 

1-060 

8-0 

12 

8-77 

0-093 

1-245 

28-4 

49 

32-86 

0-409 

1-065 

8-7 

13 

9-47 

0-102 

1-250 

28-8 

50 

33-43 

0-418 

1-070 

9-4 

14 

10-19 

0-109 

1-255 

29-3 

51 

34-00 

0-426 

1-075 

10-0 

15 

10-90 

0-117 

1-260 

29-7 

52 

34-57 

0-435 

1-080 

10-6 

16 

11-60 

0-125 

1-265 

30-2 

53 

35-14 

0-444 

1-085 

11-2 

17 

12-30 

0-133 

1-270 

30-6 

54 

35-71 

0-454 

1-090 

11-9 

18 

12-99 

0-142 

1-275 

31-1 

55 

36-29 

0-462 

1-095 

12-4 

19 

13-67 

0-150 

1-280 

31-5 

56 

36-87 

0-472 

1-100 

13-0 

20 

14-35 

0-158 

1-285 

32-0 

57 

37-45 

0-481 

1-105 

13-6 

21 

15-03 

0-166 

1-290 

32-4 

58 

38-03 

0-490 

1-110 

14-2 

22 

15-71 

0-175 

1-295 

32-8 

59 

38-61 

0-500 

1-115 

14-9 

23 

16-36 

0-183 

1-300 

33-3 

60 

39-19 

0-510 

1-120 

15-4 

24 

17-01 

0-191 

1-305 

33-7 

61 

39-77 

0-519 

1-125 

16-0 

25 

17-66 

0-199 

1-310 

34-2 

62 

40-35 

0-529 

1-130 

16-5 

26 

18-31 

0-207 

1-315 

34-6 

6340-93 

0-538 

1-135 

17-1 

27 

18-96 

0-215 

1-320 

35-0 

6441-50 

0-548 

1-140 

17-7 

28 

19-61 

0-223 

1-325 

35-4 

65142-08 

0-557 

1-145 

18-3 

29 

20-26 

0-231 

1-330 

35-8 

66 

42-66 

0-567 

1-150 

18-8 

30 

20-91 

0-239 

1-335 

36-2 

67 

43-20 

0-577 

1-155 

19-3 

31 

21-55 

0-248 

1-340 

36.6 

68 

43-74 

0-586 

1-160 

19-8 

32 

22-19 

0-257 

1-345    37-0 

6944-28 

0-596 

1-165 

20-3 

33 

22-83 

0-266 

1-350   37-4 

70 

44-82 

0-605 

1.170 

20- 

34 

23-47 

0-275 

1-355   37-8 

71 

45-35 

0-614 

1-175 

21- 

35 

24-12 

0-283 

1-360  '38-2 

72|45-88 

0-624 

1-180 

22- 

36 

24-76 

0-292 

1-365  ,38-6 

7346-41 

0-633 

92 


MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 


DENSITY    OF   SULPHUEIC   ACID    SOLUTIONS continued. 


|d 

go 

Decrees, 
Beaume. 

Degrees. 
Twaddell. 

Per  c«nt. 
H2S04. 

Kilos.H2S04 
in  1,000 
c.c. 

« 

£d 

I- 

Degrees, 
Beaum6. 

Degrees, 
Twaddell. 

Per  cent. 
H2S04. 

Kilos.H2S04 
in  1,000 
c.c. 

1-370 

39-0 

74 

46-94 

0-643 

1-560 

51-8 

112 

65-20 

•017 

1-375 

39-4 

75 

47-47 

0-653 

1-565 

52-1 

11365-65 

•027 

1-380 

39-8 

76 

48-00 

0-662 

1-570 

52-4 

11466-09 

•038 

1-385 

40-1 

77 

48-53 

0-672 

1-575 

52-7 

115!66-53 

•048 

1-390 

40-5 

78 

49-06 

0-682 

1-580 

53-0 

116,66-95 

•058 

•395 

40-8 

79 

49-59 

0-692 

•585 

53-3 

11767-40 

•068 

•400 

41-2 

80 

50-11 

0-702 

•590 

53-6 

118|67-83 

•078 

•405 

41-6 

81 

50-63 

0-711 

•595 

53-9 

119|68-26 

•089 

•410 

42-0 

82 

51-15 

0-721 

•600 

54-1 

120,68-70 

•099 

•415 

42-3 

83 

51-66 

0-730 

•605 

54-4 

12169-13 

•110 

•420 

42-7 

84 

52-15 

0-740 

•610 

54-7 

12269-56 

•120 

•425 

43-1 

85 

52-63 

0-750 

•615 

55-0 

123 

70-00 

•131 

•430 

43-4 

86 

53-11 

0-759 

•620 

55-2 

124 

70-42 

•141 

•435 

43-8 

87 

53-59 

0-769 

•625 

55-5 

125 

70-85 

•151 

•440 

44-1 

88 

54-07 

0-779 

•630 

55-8 

126 

71-27 

•162 

•445 

44-4 

89 

54-55 

0-789 

•635 

56-0 

127 

71-70 

•172 

•450 

44-8 

90 

55-03 

0-798 

•640 

56-3 

128 

72-12 

•182 

•455 

45-1 

91 

55-50 

0-808 

•645 

56-6 

12972-55 

•193 

•460 

45-4 

92 

55-97 

0-817 

•650 

56-9 

13072-96 

•204 

•465 

45-8 

93 

56-43 

0-827 

•655 

57-1 

13173-40 

•215 

•470 

46-1 

94 

56-90 

0-837 

•660 

57-4 

132 

73-81 

•225 

•475 

46-4 

95 

57-37 

0-846 

•665 

57-7 

133 

74-24 

•230 

•480 

46-8 

96 

57-83 

0-856 

•670 

57-9 

134 

74-66 

•246 

•485 

47-1 

97 

58-28 

0-865 

•675 

58-2 

135 

75-08 

•259 

•490 

47-4 

98 

58-74 

0-876 

•680 

58-4 

136 

75-50 

•268 

•495 

47-8 

9959-22 

0-885 

•685 

58-7 

137 

75-94 

1-278 

•500 

48-1 

10059-70 

0-896 

•690 

58-9 

138 

76-38 

1-289 

•505 

48-4 

101 

60-18 

0-906 

•695  !59-2 

13976-76 

1-301 

•510 

48-7  102 

60-65 

0-916 

•700    59-5 

140 

77-17 

1-312 

•515 

49-010361-12 

0-926 

•705   59-7 

141 

77-60 

1-323 

•520 

49-4 

10461-59 

0-936 

•710   60-0 

142 

78-04 

1-334 

•525 

49-7 

105.62-06 

0-946 

•715    60-2 

143 

78-48 

1-346 

•530 

50-0 

10662-53 

0-957 

•720    60-4 

144 

78-92 

1-357 

1-535 

50-3 

10763-00 

0-967 

•725  J60-6 

145 

79-36 

1-369 

1-540 

50-6 

10863-43 

0-977 

•730   60-9 

146 

79-80 

1-381 

1-545 

50-910963-85 

0-987 

•735    61-1 

147 

80-24 

1-392 

1-550 
1-555 

51-2 
51-5 

110,64-26 
lU|64-67 

0-996 
1-006 

•740   61-4 
•745  |61-6 

148 
149 

80-68 
81-12 

1-404 
1-416 

TABLES 


93 


DENSITY  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID  SOLUTIONS — continued. 


a 
£o 

ft 

p 

Degrees, 
Beaume. 

Degrees, 
Twaddell.  | 

Per  cent. 
H2S04. 

Kilos.H2S04 
in  1,000 
c.c. 

4 
J&tf 
f& 

<T 

Degrees, 
Beaume. 

0)  "3 

fe^ 

SJ5 

Per  cent. 
H2SO4. 

Kilos.H2SO4 
in  1,000 
c.c. 

•750 
•755 

61-8 
62-1 

150 
151 

81-56 

82-00 

•427 
•439 

•828 
•829 

65-4 

— 

91-70 
91-90 

1-676 
1-681 

•760 

62-3 

152 

82-44 

•451 

•830 

— 

166 

92-10 

1-685 

•765 

62-5 

153:83-01 

•465 

•831 

65-5 

— 

92-43 

1-692 

•770 

62-8 

15483-51 

•478 

•832 

— 

— 

92-70 

1-698 

•775 

63-0 

155 

84-02 

•491 

•833 

65-6 

— 

92-97 

1-704 

•780 

63-2 

156 

84-50 

•504 

1-834 

— 

— 

93-25 

•710 

•785 

63-5 

157 

85-10 

•519 

1-835 

65-7 

167 

93-56 

•717 

•790 

63-7 

158 

85-70 

•534 

1-836 

— 

— 

93-90 

•722 

•795 

64-0 

159 

86-30 

•549 

1-837 

— 

94-25 

•730 

1-800 

64-2 

160 

86-92 

•565 

1  838 

65-8 

94-60 

•739 

1-805 

64-4 

161 

87-60 

•581 

1-839 

— 

— 

95-00 

•748 

1-810 

64-6 

162 

88-30 

•598 

1-840 

65-9 

168 

95-60 

•759 

•815 

64-8 

163 

89-16 

1-618 

1-8405 

— 

— 

95-95 

•765 

•820 

65-0 

164 

90-05 

1-639 

1-8410 

— 

— 

96-38 

•774 

•821 

— 

— 

90-20 

1-643 

1-8415 

— 

— 

97-35 

•792 

•822 

65-1 

— 

90-40 

1-647 

1-8410 

— 

— 

98-20 

•808 

•823 





90-60 

1-651 

1-8405 

— 

— 

98-52 

•814 

•824 

65-2 

— 

90-80 

1-656 

1-8400 

— 

— 

98-72 

•816 

•825 

— 

165 

91-00 

1-661 

1-8395 

— 

— 

98-77 

•817 

•826 

65-3 

— 

91-25 

1-666 

1-8390 

— 

— 

99-12 

•823 

•827 

— 

- 

91-50 

1-671 

1-8385 

— 

— 

99-31 

•826 

The  following  works  have  been  consulted  in  compiling  these 
tables : — Chemiker  Kalendar,  Lunge's  Chemisch-ter.hnische  Unter- 
suchungsmethoden,  The  Bayer  Company's  Pocket  Booh,  The  Photo- 
graphic Annual. 


94 


MATERIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


DENSITY   OF   SODIUM   HYDROXIDE    SOLUTIONS. 


« 

£d 

'is 

nTsD 

Degrees, 
Twaddell. 

Per  cpnt. 
NaOH. 

Kilos.  VaOH 
inl,000c.c. 

"d 

-bo 

1- 

c 

Degrees, 
Beaum6 

Degrees, 
Twaddell. 

!« 
^9 

I* 

Ko 

11 

82- 
5.S 

1-007 

1 

1-4 

0-61 

6 

•220 

26 

44-0 

19-58 

239 

1-014 

2 

2-8 

1-20 

12 

•231 

27 

46-2 

20-59 

253 

1-022 

3 

4-4 

2-00 

21 

•241 

28 

48-2 

21-42 

266 

1-029 

4 

5-8 

2-71 

28 

•252 

29 

50-4 

22-64 

283 

1-036 

5 

7-2 

3-35 

35 

•263 

30 

52-6 

23-67 

299 

1-045 

6 

9-0 

4-00 

42 

•274 

31 

54-8 

24-81 

316 

1-052 

7 

10-4 

4-64 

49 

•285 

32 

57-0 

25-80 

332 

1-060 

8 

12-0 

5-29 

56 

•297 

33 

59-4 

26-83 

348 

1-067 

9 

13-4 

5-87 

63 

•308 

34 

61-6 

27-80 

364 

1-075 

10 

15-0 

6-55 

70 

•320 

35 

64-0 

28-83 

381 

1-083 

11 

16-6 

7-31 

79 

•332 

36 

66-4 

29-93 

399 

1-091 

12 

18-2 

8-00 

87 

•345 

37 

69-0 

31-22 

420 

1-100 

13 

20-0 

8-68 

95 

•357 

38 

71-4 

32-47 

441 

1-108 

14 

21-6 

9-42 

104 

•370 

39 

74-0 

33-69 

462 

1-116 

15 

23-2 

10-06 

112 

•383 

40 

76-6 

34-96 

483 

1-125 

16 

25-0 

10-97 

123 

•397 

41 

79-4 

36-25 

506 

1-134 

17 

26-8 

11-84 

134 

1-410 

42 

82-0 

37-47 

528 

1-142 

18 

28-4 

12-64 

144 

1-424 

43 

84-8 

38-80 

553 

1-152 

19 

30-4 

13-55 

156 

1-438 

44 

87-6 

39-99 

575 

1-162 

20 

32-4 

14-37 

167 

•453 

45 

90-6 

41-41 

602 

1-171 

21 

34-2 

15-13 

177 

•468 

46 

93-6 

42-83 

629 

1-180 

22 

36-0 

15-91 

188 

•483 

47 

96-6 

44-38 

658 

1-190 

23 

38-0 

16-77 

200 

•498 

48 

99-6 

46-15 

691 

1-200 

24 

40-0 

17-67 

212 

•514 

49 

102-8 

47-60 

721 

1-210 

25 

42-0 

18-58 

225 

•530 

50 

106-0 

49-02 

750 

TABLES 


95 


DENSITY    OF   AMMONIA    SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
NH3. 

Grammes 
NH3in 
1,000  c.c. 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
NH3. 

Grammes 
NH3in 
1,000  c.c. 

1-000 

0-00 

0-0 

0-940 

15-63 

146-9 

0-998 

0-45 

4-5 

0-938 

16-22 

152-1 

0-996 

0-91 

9-1 

0-936 

16-82 

157-4 

0-994 

1-37 

13-6 

0-934 

17-42 

162-7 

0-992 

1-84 

18-2 

0-932 

18-03 

168-1 

0-990 

2-31 

22-9 

0-930 

18-64 

173-4 

0-988 

2-80 

27-7 

0-928 

19-25 

178-6 

0-986 

3-30 

32-5 

0-926 

19-87 

184-2 

0-984 

3-80 

37-4 

0-924 

20-49 

189-3 

0-982 

4-30 

42-2 

0-922 

21-12 

194-7 

0-980 

4-80 

47-0 

0-920 

21-75 

200-1 

0-978 

5-30 

51-8 

0-918 

22-39 

205-6 

0-976 

5-80 

56-6 

0-916 

23-03 

210-9 

0-974 

6-30 

61-4 

0-914 

23-68 

216-3 

0-972 

6-80 

66-1 

0-912 

24-33 

221-9 

0-970 

7-31 

70-9 

0-910 

24-99 

227-4 

0-968 

7-82 

75-7 

0-908 

25-65 

232-9 

0-966 

8-33 

80-5 

0-906 

26-31 

238-3 

0-964 

8-84 

85-2 

0-904 

26-98 

243-9 

0-962 

9-35 

89-9 

0-902 

27-65 

249-4 

0-960 

9-91 

95-1 

0-900 

28-33 

255-0 

0-958 

10-47 

100-3 

0-898 

29-01 

260-5 

0-956 

11-03 

105-4 

0-896 

29-69 

266-0 

0-954 

11-60 

110-7 

0-894 

30-37 

271-5 

0-952 

12-17 

115-9 

0-892 

31-05 

277-0 

0-950 

12-74 

121-0 

0-890 

31-75 

282-6 

0-948 

13-31 

126-2 

0-888 

32-50 

288-6 

0-946 

13-88 

131-3 

0-886 

33-25 

294-6 

0-944 

14-46 

136-5 

0-884 

34-10 

301-4 

0-942 

15-04 

141-7 

0-882 

34-95 

308-3 

96  MATEEIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 

DENSITY   OF    ZINC    CHLORIDE    SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at  19-5  °C. 

Per  cent.  ZnCl2. 

1-045 

5 

1-091 

10 

1-137 

15 

1-186 

20 

1-238 

25 

1-291 

30 

1-352 

35 

1-420 

40 

1-488 

45 

1-566 

50 

1-650 

55 

1-740 

60 

DENSITY   OF   ZINC    SULPHATE   SOLUTIONS. 

Density  at  15°  C. 

Per  cent.  ZnS04 
7H20. 

1-0288 

5 

1-0593 

10 

1-0905 

15 

1-1236 

20 

1-1574 

25 

1-1932 

30 

1-231 

35 

1-2709 

40 

1-310 

45 

1-2522 

50 

1-3986 

55 

1-4451 

60 

TABLES 


97 


DENSITY   OF   CALCIUM   CHLORIDE   SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
18-3°  C. 

Per  cent. 
CaCl2. 
6H2O. 

Per  cent. 
CaCl2. 

Density  at 
18  -3°  C. 

Percent. 
CaCl2. 
6H2O. 

Per  cent. 
CaCl2. 

1-0039 

1 

0-507 

1-1575 

36 

18-245 

1-0079 

2 

1-014 

1-1622 

37 

18-752 

1-0119 

3 

1-521 

1-1671 

38 

19-259 

1-0159 

4 

2-028 

1-1719 

39 

19-766 

1-0200 

5 

2-535 

1-1768 

40 

20-272 

•0241 

6 

3-041 

1-1816 

41 

20-779 

•0282 

7 

3-548 

•1865 

42 

21-286 

•0323 

8 

4-055 

•1914 

43 

21-793 

•0365 

9 

4-562 

•1963 

44 

22-300 

•0407 

10 

5-068 

•2012 

45 

22-806 

•0449 

11 

5-575 

•2062 

46 

23-313 

•0491 

12 

6-082 

•2112 

47 

23-820 

•0534 

13 

6-587 

•2162 

48 

24-327 

•0577 

14 

7-096 

•2212 

49 

24-834 

•0619 

15 

7-601 

•2262 

50 

25-340 

•0663 

16 

8-107 

•2312 

51 

25-847 

•0706 

17 

8-611 

•2363 

52 

26-354 

•0750 

18 

9-121 

•2414 

53 

26-861 

•0794 

19 

9-625 

•2465 

54 

27-368 

•0838 

20 

10-136 

•2516 

55 

27-874 

•0882 

21 

10-643 

•2567 

56 

28-381 

•0927 

22 

11-150 

1-2618 

57 

28-888 

•0972 

23 

11-657 

1-2669 

58 

29-395 

•1017 

24 

12-164 

1-2721 

59 

29-902 

•1062 

25 

12-670 

1-2773 

60 

30-408 

•1107 

26 

13-177 

1-2825 

61 

30-915 

•1153 

27 

13-684 

1-2877 

62 

31-422 

•1199 

28 

14-191 

1-2929 

63 

31-929 

•1246 

29 

14-698 

1-2981 

64 

32-436 

•1292 

30 

15-204 

1-3034 

65 

32-942 

•1339 

31 

15-711 

1-3087 

66 

33-449 

•1386 

32 

16-218 

1-3140 

67 

33-956 

•1433 

33 

16-725 

1-3193 

68 

34-463 

•1480 

34 

17-232 

1-3246 

69 

34-970 

1-1527 

35 

17-738 

1-3300 

70 

35-476 

s. 


98 


MATEBIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


DENSITY    OF   MAGNESIUM   CHLORIDE    SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
24°  C. 

Per  cent. 
MgCl2. 
6H2O. 

Per  cent. 
Mgdjj. 

Density  at 
24°  C. 

Per  cent. 
MgCl2. 
6  H20. 

Per  cent. 
MgCl2. 

1-0069 

2 

0-936 

•1519 

42 

19-656 

1-0138 

4 

1-872 

•1598 

44 

20-592 

1-0207 

6 

2-808 

•1677 

46 

21-528 

1-0276 

8 

3-744 

•1756 

48 

22-464 

1-0345 

10 

4-680 

•1836 

50 

23-400 

1-0415 

12 

5-616 

•1918 

52 

24-336 

1-0485 

14 

6-552 

•2000 

54 

25-272 

1-0556 

16 

7-488 

•2083 

56 

26-208 

1-0627 

18 

8-424 

•2167 

58 

27-144 

1-0698 

20 

9-360 

•2252 

60 

28-080 

1-0770 

22 

10-296 

•2338 

62 

29-016 

1-0842 

24 

11-232 

•2425 

64 

29-952 

•0915 

26 

12-168 

•2513 

66 

30-888 

•0988 

28 

13-104 

•2602 

68 

31-824 

•1062 

30 

14-040 

•2692 

70 

32-760 

•1137 

32 

14-976 

•2783 

72 

33-696 

•1212 

34 

15-912 

•2875 

74 

34-632 

•1288 

36 

16-848 

•2968 

76 

35-568 

•1364 

38 

17-784 

•3063 

78 

36-504 

1-1441 

40 

18-720 

•3159 

80 

37-440 

DENSITY   OF  MAGNESIUM    SULPHATE   SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
MgS04.  7  H20. 

Per  cent. 
MgS04. 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
MgS04.  7H20. 

Per  cent. 
MgS04. 

1-02062 

4-097 

2 

•17420 

32-780 

16 

1-04123 

8-185 

4 

•19816 

36-877 

18 

1-06229 

12-292 

6 

•22212 

40-975 

20 

1-08379 

16-390 

8 

•24718 

45-072 

22 

1-10529 

20-487 

10 

•27225 

49-170 

24 

1-12806 

24-585 

12 

•28802 

51-726 

25-25 

1-15083 

28-682 

14 

TABLES 


99 


DENSITY    OF    SODIUM    CHLORIDE   SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
]5°C. 

Per  cent. 
NaCl. 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 

NaCl. 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
NaCl. 

•00725 

1 

•07335 

10 

1-14315 

19 

•01450 

2 

•08097 

11 

1-15107 

20 

•02174 

3 

•08859 

12 

1-15931 

21 

•02899 

4 

•09622 

13 

1-16755 

22 

•03624 

5 

•10384 

14 

1-17580 

23 

•04366 

6 

•11146 

15 

1-18404 

24 

•05108 

7 

•11938 

16 

1-19228 

25 

1-05851 

8 

•12730 

17 

1-20098 

26 

1-06593 

9 

1-13523 

18 

1-20433 

26-395 

DENSITY   OF   SODIUM    SULPHATE   SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
19°  C. 

Per  cent. 
Na2SO4. 
10  H20. 

Per  cent. 
Na2S04. 

Density  at 
19°  C. 

Per  cent. 
Na2SO4. 
10  H2O. 

Per  cent. 
NasSO*. 

•0040 

1 

0-441 

1-0642 

16 

7-056 

•0079 

2 

0-881 

1-0683 

17 

7-497 

•0118 

3 

1-323 

1-0725 

18 

7-938 

•0158 

4 

1-764 

•0766 

19 

8-379 

•0198 

5 

2-205 

•0807 

20 

8-820 

•0238 

6 

2-646 

•0849 

21 

9-261 

•0278 

7 

3-087 

•0890 

22 

9-702 

•0318 

8 

3-528 

•0931 

23 

10-143 

•0358 

9 

3-969 

•0973 

24 

10-584 

•0398 

10 

4-410 

•1015 

25 

11-025 

•0439 

11 

4-851 

•1057 

26 

11-466 

•0479 

12 

5-292 

•1100 

27 

11-907 

•0520 

13 

5-373 

•1142 

28 

12-348 

•0560 

14 

6-174 

•1184 

29 

12-789 

•0601 

15 

6-615 

•1226 

30 

13-230 

H  2 


100 


MATEKIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


DENSITY    OP    ACETIC  ACID    SOLUTIONS. 


Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
CH8COOH. 

Density  at 
15°C. 

Per  cent. 
CHgCOOH. 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent.  ' 
CHsCOOH.ll 

Density  at 
15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
CH8COOH. 

0-9992 

0 

1-0363 

26 

1-0631 

52 

1-0748 

77 

1-0007 

1 

1-0375 

27 

1-0638 

53 

1-0748 

78 

1-0022 

2 

1-0388 

28 

1-0646 

54 

1-0748 

79 

1-0037 

3 

1-0400 

29 

1-0653 

55 

1-0748 

80 

1-0052 

4 

•0412 

30 

1-0660 

56 

1-0747 

81 

1-0067 

5 

•0424 

31 

1-0666 

57 

•0746 

82 

1-0083 

6 

•0436 

32 

1-0673 

58 

•0744 

83 

1-0098 

7 

•0447 

33 

1-0679 

59 

•0742 

84 

1-0113 

8 

•0459 

34 

1-0685 

60 

•0739 

85 

1-0127 

9 

•0470 

35 

1-0691 

61 

•0736 

86 

1-0142 

10 

1-0481 

36 

1-0697 

62 

•0731 

87 

1-0157 

11 

1-0492 

37 

1-0702 

63 

•0726 

88 

1-0171 

12 

1-0502 

38 

1-0707 

64 

1-0720 

89 

1-0185 

13 

1-0513 

39 

1-0712 

65 

1-0713 

90 

1-0200 

14 

1-0523 

40 

1-0717 

66 

1-0705 

91 

1-0214 

15 

•0533 

41 

1-0721 

67 

1-0696 

92 

1-0228 

16 

•0543 

42 

1-0725 

68 

1-0686 

93 

1-0242 

17 

•0552 

43 

1-0729 

69 

1-0674 

94 

1-0256 

18 

•0562 

44 

1-0733 

70 

•0660 

95 

1-0270 

19 

1-0571 

45 

1-0737 

71 

•0644 

96 

1-0284 

20 

1-0580 

46 

1-0740 

72 

•0625 

97 

•0298 

21 

1-0589 

47 

1-0742 

73 

•0604 

98 

•0311 

22 

1-0598 

48 

1-0744 

74 

•0580 

99 

•0324 

23 

1-0607 

49 

1-0746 

75 

•0553 

100 

•0337 

24 

1-0615 

50 

1-0747 

76 

•0350 

25 

1-0623 

51 

'••'  'TABLE  S;';;i^  ''  ••''•'- 


101 


DENSITY   OP  FORMALIN    SOLUTIONS    (LUTTKE). 


Per 
cent. 
HCHO. 

Density 
at 
18-5°  C. 

Per 
cent. 
HCHO. 

Density 
at 
18-5°  C. 

Per 
cent. 
HCHO. 

Density 
at 
18'5°  C. 

Per 
cent. 
HCHO. 

Density 
at 
18  -5°  C. 

1 

•002 

11 

•027 

21 

1-052 

31 

1-076 

2 

•004 

12 

•029 

22 

1-055 

32 

1-077 

3 

•007 

13 

•031 

23 

1-058 

33 

1-078 

4 

•008 

14 

•033 

24 

1-061 

34 

1-079 

5 

•015 

15 

•036 

25 

•064 

35 

•081 

6 

•017 

16 

•039 

26 

•067 

36 

•082 

7 

•019 

17 

•041 

27 

•069 

37 

•083 

8 

•020 

18 

•043 

28 

•071 

38 

•085 

9 

•023 

19 

•045 

29 

•073 

39 

•086 

10 

•025 

20 

•049 

30 

•075 

40 

•087 

DENSITY  OF   GLYCERINE    SOLUTIONS. 


Per  cent. 
Water. 

Density  at  15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
Water. 

Density  at  15°  C. 

0 

1-2640 

11-5 

1-2335 

0-5 

1-2625 

12-0 

1-2322 

1-0 

1-2612 

12-5 

1-2307 

1-5 

1-2600 

13-0 

1-2295 

2-0 

1-2585 

13-5 

1-2280 

2-5 

1-2575 

14-0 

1-2270 

3-0 

1-2560 

14-5 

1-2255 

3-5 

1-2545 

15-0 

•2242 

4-0 

1-2532 

15-5 

•2230 

4-5 

•2520 

16-0 

•2217 

5-0 

•2505 

16-5 

•2202 

5-5 

•2490 

17-0 

•2190 

6-0 

•2480 

17-5 

•2177 

6-5 

•2465 

18-0 

•2165 

7-0 

•2455 

18-5 

•2150 

7-5 

•2440 

19-0 

•2137 

8-0 

•2427 

19-5 

•2125 

8-5 

1-2412 

20-0 

•2112 

9-0 

1-2400 

20-5 

1-2100 

9-5 

1-2390 

21-0 

1-2085 

10-0 

1-2375 

25 

1-187 

10-5 

1-2362 

30 

1-169 

11-0 

1-2350 

102         MATERIALS  USED   IN   SIZING 

DENSITY   OF    GLYCERINE    SOLUTIONS continued. 


Per  cent. 
Water. 

Density  at  15°  C. 

Per  cent. 
Water. 

Density  at  17  '5°  C. 

35 

1-155 

60 

1-105 

40 

1-144 

70 

1-075 

45 

1-130 

80 

1-051 

50 

1-117 

90 

1-024 

TABLES    FOR   THE    COMPARISON    OF   SPECIFIC   GRAVITY, 
DEGREES   BEAUM&  AND   DEGREES   TWADDELL. 

FOR   LIQUIDS  LIGHTER   THAN   WATER. 


Specific  Gravity. 

Degrees 
Beaum6. 

Specific  Gravity. 

Degrees 
Beaum6. 

1-0000 

10 

0-8488 

36 

0-9932 

11 

0-8439 

37 

0-9865 

12 

0-8391 

38 

0-9799 

13 

0-8343 

39 

0-9733 

14 

0-8295 

40 

0-9669 

15 

0-8249 

41 

0-9605 

16 

0-8202 

42 

0-9542 

17 

0-8156 

43 

0-9480 

18 

0-8111 

44 

0-9420 

19 

0-8066 

45 

0-9359 

20 

0-8022 

46 

0-9299 

21 

0-7978 

47 

0-9241 

22 

0-7935 

48 

0-9183 

23 

0-7892 

49 

0-9125 

24 

0-7849 

50 

0-9068 

25 

0-7807 

51 

0-9012 

26 

0-7766 

52 

0-8957 

27 

0-7725 

53 

0-8902 

28 

0-7684 

54 

0-8848 

29 

0-7643 

55 

0-8795 

30 

0-7604 

56 

0-8742 

31 

0-7565 

57 

0-8690 

32 

0-7526 

58 

0-8639 

33 

0-7487 

59 

0-8588 

34 

0-7449 

60 

0-8538 

35 

TABLES 


103 


FOR  LIQUIDS   HEAVIER   THAN    WATER. 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Twaddell. 

Degrees 
Beaume. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Twaddell. 

Degrees 
Beaum6. 

1-000 

0 

0-0 

1-195 

39 

23-5 

1-005 

1 

0-7 

1-200 

40 

24-0 

1-010 

2 

1-4 

•205 

41 

24-5 

•015 

3 

2-1 

•210 

42 

25-0 

•020 

4 

2-7 

•215 

43 

25-5 

•025 

5 

3-4 

•220 

44 

26-0 

•030 

6 

4-1 

•225 

45 

26-4 

•035 

7 

4-7 

•230 

46 

26'9 

•040 

8 

5-4 

•235 

47 

27'4 

•045 

9 

6-0 

•240 

48 

27-9 

1-050 

10 

6-7 

•245 

49 

28-4 

1-055 

11 

7-4 

•250 

50 

28-8 

1-060 

12 

8-0 

•255 

51 

29-3 

1-065 

13 

8-7 

•260 

52 

29-7 

1-070 

14 

9-4 

•265 

53 

30-2 

1-075 

15 

10-0 

•270 

54 

30-6 

1-080 

16 

10-6 

•275 

55 

31-1 

1-085 

17 

11-2 

•280 

56 

31-5 

1-090 

18 

11-9 

•285 

57 

32-0 

1-095 

19 

12-4 

•290 

58 

32-4 

1-100 

20 

13-0 

•295 

59 

32-8 

1-105 

21 

13-6 

•300 

60 

33-3 

1-110 

22 

14-2 

•305 

61 

33-7 

1-115 

23 

14-9 

•310 

62 

34-2 

1-120 

24 

15-4 

•315 

63 

34-6 

1-125 

25 

16-0 

•320 

64 

35-0 

1-130 

26 

16-5 

•325 

65 

35-4 

1-135 

27 

17-1 

•330 

66 

35-8 

1-140 

28 

17-7 

•335 

67 

36-2 

1-145 

29 

18-3 

•340 

68 

36-6 

1-150 

30 

18-8 

•345 

69 

37-0 

1-155 

31 

19-3 

•350 

70 

37-4 

1-160 

32 

19-8 

•355 

71 

37-8 

1-165 

33 

20-3 

•360 

72 

38-2 

1-170 

34 

20-9 

•365 

73 

38-6 

1-175 

35 

21.4 

•370 

74 

39-0 

1-180 

36 

22-0 

•375 

75 

39-4 

1-185 

37 

22-5 

•380 

76 

39-8 

1-190 

38 

23-0 

•385 

77 

40-1 

104         MATEEIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 


FOR  LIQUIDS  HEAVIER   THAN   WATER — continued. 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Twaddell. 

Degrees 
Beaume. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Twaddell. 

Degrees 
Beaum6. 

1-390 

78 

40-5 

1-585 

117 

53-3 

1-395 

79 

40-8 

1-590 

118 

53-6 

1-400 

80 

41-2 

1-595 

119 

53-9 

1-405 

81 

41-6 

1-600 

120 

54-1 

1-410 

82 

42-0 

1-605 

121 

54-4 

1-415 

83 

42-3 

1-610 

122 

54-7 

1-420 

84 

42-7 

1-615 

123 

55-0 

1-425 

85 

43-1 

1-620 

124 

55-2 

1-430 

86 

43-4 

1-625 

125 

55-5 

1-435 

87 

43-8 

1-630 

126 

55-8 

1-440 

88 

44-1 

1-635 

127 

56-0 

1-445 

89 

44-4 

1-640 

128 

56-3 

1-450 

90 

44-8 

1-645 

129 

56-6 

1-455 

91 

45-1 

1-650 

130 

56-9 

1-460 

92 

45-4 

1-655 

131 

57-1 

1-465 

93 

45-8 

1-660 

132 

57-4 

1-470 

94 

46-1 

1-665 

133 

57-7 

1-475 

95 

46-4 

1-670 

134 

57-9 

1-480 

96 

46-8 

1-675 

135 

58-2 

1-485 

97            47-1 

1-680 

136 

58-4 

1-490 

98 

47-4 

1-685 

137 

58-7 

1-495 

99 

47-8 

1-690 

138 

58-9 

1-500 

100 

48-1 

1-695 

139 

59-2 

1-505 

101 

48-4 

1-700 

140 

59-5 

1-510 

102 

48-7 

1-705 

141 

59-7 

1-515 

103 

49-0 

1-710 

142 

60-0 

1-520 

104 

49-4 

1-715 

143 

60-2 

1-525 

105 

49-7 

1-720 

144 

60-4 

1-530 

106 

50-0 

1-725 

145 

60-6 

1-535 

107 

50-3 

1-730 

146 

60-9 

1-540 

108 

50-6 

1-735 

147 

61-1 

1-545 

109 

50-9 

1-740 

148 

61-4 

1-550 

110 

51-2 

1-745 

149 

61-6 

1-555 

111 

51-5 

1-750 

150 

61-8 

1-560 

112 

51-8 

1-755 

151 

62-1 

1-565 

113 

52-1 

1-760 

152 

62-3 

1-570 

114 

52-4 

1-765 

153 

62-5 

1-575 

115 

52-7 

1-770 

154 

62-8 

.   1-580 

116 

53-0 

1-775 

155 

63-0 

TABLES 


105 


FOR   LIQUIDS    HEAVIER   THAN    WATER — continued. 


Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Twaddell. 

Degrees 
Beaum6. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Degrees 
Twaddell. 

Degrees 
Beaum6. 

1-780 

156 

63-2 

1-825 

165 

65-2 

1-785 

157 

63-5 

1-830 

166 

65-5 

1-790 

158 

63-7 

1-835 

167 

65-7 

1-795 

159 

64-0 

1-840 

168 

65-9 

1-800 

160 

64-2 

1-845 

169 

66-1 

1-805 

161 

64-4 

1-850 

170 

66-3 

1-810 

162 

64-6 

1-855 

171 

66-5 

1-815 

163 

64-8 

1-860 

172 

66-7 

1-820 

164 

65-0 

1-865 

173 

67-0 

COMPARISON    OF   THERMOMETRIC    SCALES. 

To  convert  C°  to  R°,  multiply  t°  C  by  |. 

„        C°  „  F°,         „        t°  C  „  f  and  add  32. 
R°  „  F°,          „        t°  R  „  |     „       „    32. 


F°  „  C°,  subtract  32  and  multiply  by  f. 
F°  „  R°,  32  „   *. 


106 


MATEEIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


TABLES    OF    COMPARISON    OF   THERMOMETRIC   SCALES. 


Centi- 
grade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

100 

212 

80 

61 

141-8 

48-8 

99 

210-2 

79-2 

60 

140 

48 

98 

208-4 

78-4 

59 

138-2 

47-2 

97 

206-6 

77-6 

58 

136-4 

46-4 

96 

204-8 

76-8 

57 

134-6 

45-6 

95 

203 

76 

56 

132-8 

44-8 

94 

201-2 

75-2 

55 

131 

44 

93 

199-4 

74-4 

54 

129-2 

43-2 

92 

197-6 

73-6 

53 

127-4 

42-4 

91 

195-8 

72-8 

52 

125-6 

41-6 

90 

194 

72 

51 

123-8 

40-8 

89 

192-2 

71-2 

50 

122 

40 

88 

190-4 

70-4 

49 

120-2 

39-2 

87 

188-6 

69-6 

48 

118-4 

38-4 

86 

186-8 

68-8 

47 

116-6 

37-6 

85 

185 

68 

46 

114-8 

36-8 

84 

183-2 

67-2 

45 

113 

36 

83 

181-4 

66-4 

44 

111-2 

35-2 

82 

179-6 

65-6 

43 

109-4 

34-4 

81 

177-8 

64-8 

42 

107-6 

33-6 

80 

176 

64 

41 

105-8 

32-8 

79 

174-2 

63-2 

40 

104 

32 

78 

172-4 

62-4 

39 

102-2 

31-2 

77 

170-6 

61-6 

38 

100-4 

30-4 

76 

168-8 

60-8 

37 

98-6 

29-6 

75 

167 

60 

36 

96-8 

28-8 

74 

165-2 

59-2 

35 

95 

28 

73 

163-4 

58-4 

34 

93-2 

27-2 

72 

161-6 

57-6 

33 

91-4 

26-4 

71 

159-8 

56-8 

32 

89-6 

25-6 

70 

158 

56 

31 

87-8 

24-8 

69 

156-2 

55-2 

30 

86 

24 

68 

154-4 

54-4 

29 

84-2 

23-2 

67 

152-6 

53-6 

28 

82-4 

22-4 

66 

150-8 

52-8 

27 

80-6 

21-6 

65 

149 

52 

26 

78-8 

20-8 

64 

147-2 

51-2 

25 

77 

20 

63 

145-4 

50-4 

24 

75-2 

19-2 

62 

143-6 

49-6 

23 

73-4 

18-4 

TABLES 


107 


TABLES    OF    COMPARISON    OF    THERMOMETEIC    SCALES 

— continued. 


Centi- 
grade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

Centi- 
grade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

22 

71-6 

17-6 

14 

6-8 

11-2 

21 

69-8 

16-8 

15 

5 

12 

20 

68 

16 

16 

3-2 

12-8 

19 

66-2 

15-2 

17 

1-4 

13-6 

18 

64-4 

14-4 

18 

Zero 

14-4 

17 

62-6 

13-6 

19 

-  2-2 

15-2 

16 

60-8 

12-8 

20 

4 

16 

15 

59 

12 

21 

5-8 

16-8 

14 

57-2 

11-2 

22 

7-6 

17-6 

13 

55-4 

10-4 

23 

9-4 

18-4 

12 

53-6 

9-6 

24 

11-2 

19-2 

11 

51-8 

8-8 

25 

13 

20 

10 

50 

8 

26 

14-8 

20-8 

9 

48-2 

7-2 

27 

16-6 

21-6 

8 

46-4 

6-4 

28 

18-4 

22-4 

7 

44-6 

5-6 

29 

20-2 

23-2 

6 

42-8 

4-8 

30 

22 

24 

5 

41 

4 

31 

23-8 

24-8 

4 

39-2 

3-2 

32 

25-6 

25-6 

3 

37-4 

2-4 

33 

27-4 

26-4 

2 

35-6 

1-6 

34 

29-2 

27-2 

1 

33-8 

0-8 

35 

31 

28 

Zero 

32 

Zero 

36 

32-8 

28-8 

-  1 

30-2 

-  0-8 

37 

34-6 

29-6 

2 

28-4 

1-6 

38 

36-4 

30-4 

3 

26-6 

2-4 

39 

38-2 

31-2 

4 

24-8 

3-2 

40 

40 

32 

5 

23 

4 

41 

41-8 

32-8 

6 

21-2 

4-8 

42 

43-6 

33-6 

7 

19-4 

5-6 

43 

45-4 

34-4 

8 

17-6 

6-4 

44 

47-2 

35-2 

9 

15-8 

7-2 

45 

49 

36 

10 

14 

8 

46 

50-8 

36-8 

11 

12-2 

8-8 

47 

52-6 

37-6 

12 

10-4 

9-6 

48 

54-4 

38-4 

13 

8-6 

10-4 

49 

56-2 

39-2 

108 


MATEEIALS  USED  IN  SIZING 


TABLES  OF  COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES 

—  continued. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centigrade. 

x 

R6aiimur. 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

+212 

+100 

+80 

+170 

+76-67 

+61-33 

211 

99-44 

79-56 

169 

76-11 

60-89 

210 

98-89 

79-11 

168 

75-55 

60-44 

209 

98-33 

78-67 

167 

75 

60 

208 

97-78 

78-22 

166 

74-44 

59-56 

207 

97-22 

77-78 

165 

73-89 

59-11 

206 

96-67 

77-33 

164 

73-33 

58-67 

205 

96-11 

76-89 

163 

72-78 

58-22 

204 

95-55 

76-44 

162 

72-22 

57-78 

203 

95 

76 

161 

71-67 

57-33 

202 

94-44 

75-56 

160 

71-11 

56-89 

201 

93-89 

75-11 

159 

70-55 

56-44 

200 

93-33 

74-67 

158 

70 

56 

199 

92-78 

74-22 

157 

69-44 

55-56 

198 

92-22 

73-78 

156 

68-89 

55-11 

197 

91-67 

73-33 

155 

68-33 

54-67 

196 

91-11 

72-89 

154 

67-78 

54-22 

195 

90-55 

72-44 

153 

67-22 

53-78 

194 

90-00 

72 

152 

66-67 

53-33 

193 

89-44 

71-56 

151 

66-11 

52-89 

192 

88-89 

71-11 

150 

65-55 

52-44 

191 

88-33 

70-67 

149 

65 

52 

190 

87-78 

70-22 

148 

64-44 

51-56 

189 

87-22 

69-78 

147 

63-89 

51-11 

188 

86-67 

69-33 

146 

63-33 

50-67 

187 

86-11 

68-89 

145 

62-78 

50-22 

186 

85-55 

68-44 

144 

62-22 

49-78 

185 

85 

68 

143 

61-67 

49-33 

184 

84-44 

67-56 

142 

61-11 

48-89 

183 

83-89 

67-11 

141 

60-55 

48-44 

182 

83-33 

66-67 

140 

60 

48 

181 

82-78 

66-22 

139 

59-44 

47-56 

180 

82-22 

65-78 

138 

58-89 

47-11 

179 

81-67 

65-33 

137 

58-33 

46-67 

178 

81-11 

64-89 

136 

57-78 

46-22 

177 

80-55 

64-44 

135 

57-22 

45-78 

176 

80 

64 

134 

56-67 

45-33 

175 

79-44 

63-56 

133 

56-11 

44-89 

174 

78-89 

63-11 

132 

55-55 

44-44 

173 

78-33 

62-67 

131 

55 

44 

172 

77-78 

62-22 

130 

54-44 

43-56 

171 

77-22 

61-78 

129 

53-89 

43-11 

TABLES 


109 


TABLES    OF    COMPARISON    OF   THERMOMETRIC    SCALES 

— continued. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

+  128 

+53-33 

+42-67 

+86 

+30 

+24 

127 

52-78 

42-22 

85 

29-44 

23-56 

126 

52-22 

41-78 

84 

28-89 

23-11 

125 

51-67 

41-33 

83 

28-33 

22-67 

124 

51-11 

40-89 

82 

27-78 

22-22 

123 

50-55 

40-44 

81 

27-22 

21-78 

122 

50 

40 

80 

26-67 

21-33 

121 

49-44 

39-56 

79 

26-11 

20-89 

120 

48-89 

39-11 

78 

25-55 

20-44 

119 

48-33 

38-67 

77 

25 

20 

118 

47-78 

38-22 

76 

24-44 

19-56 

117 

47-22 

37-78 

75 

23-89 

19-11 

116 

46-67 

37-33 

74 

23-33 

18-67 

115 

46-11 

36-89 

73 

22-78 

18-22 

114 

45-55 

36-44 

72 

22-22 

17-78 

113 

45 

36 

71 

21-67 

17-33 

112 

44-44 

35-56 

70 

21-11 

16-89 

111 

43-89 

35-11 

69 

20-55 

16-44 

110 

43-33 

34-67 

68 

20 

16 

109 

42-78 

34-22 

67 

19-44 

15-56 

108 

42-22 

33-78 

66 

18-89 

15-11 

107 

41-67 

33-33 

65 

18-33 

14-67 

106 

41-11 

32-89 

64 

17-78 

14-22 

105 

40-55 

32-44 

63 

17-22 

13-78 

104 

40 

32 

62 

16-67 

13-33 

103 

39-44 

31-56 

61 

16-11 

12-89 

102 

38-89 

31-11 

60 

15-55 

12-44 

101 

38-33 

30-67 

59 

15 

12 

100 

37-78 

30-22 

58 

14-44 

11-56 

99 

37-22 

29-78 

57 

13-89 

11-11 

98 

36-67 

29-33 

56 

13-33 

10-67 

97 

36-11 

28-89 

55 

12-78 

10-22 

96 

35-55 

28-44 

54 

12-22 

9-78 

95 

35 

28 

53 

11-67 

9-33 

94 

34-44 

27-56 

52 

11-11 

8-89 

93 

33-89 

27-11 

61 

10-55 

8-44 

92 

33-33 

26-67 

50 

10 

8 

91 

32-78 

26-22 

49 

9-44 

7-56 

90 

32-22 

25-78 

48 

8-89 

7-11 

89 

31-67 

25-33 

47 

8-33 

6-67 

88 

31-11 

24-89 

46 

7-78 

6-22 

87 

30-55 

24-44 

45 

7-22 

5-78 

110         MATERIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


TABLES    OF   COMPARISON    OF   THERMOMETRIC    SCALES 

— continued. 


Fahren- 
heit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

Fahren- 
heit. 

Centigrade. 

Reaumur. 

+44 

+6-67 

+5-33 

+  1 

-17-22 

-13-78 

43 

6-11 

4-89 

0 

17-78 

14-22 

42 

5-55 

4-44 

-1 

18-33 

14-67 

41 

5 

4 

2 

18-89 

15-11 

40 

4-44 

3-56 

3 

19-44 

15-56 

39 

3-89 

3-11 

4 

20 

16 

38 

3-33 

2-67 

5 

20-55 

16-44 

37 

2-78 

2-22 

6 

21-11 

16-89 

36 

2-22 

1-78 

7 

21-67 

17-33 

35 

1-67 

1-33 

8 

22-22 

17-78 

34 

Ml 

0-89 

9 

22-78 

18-22 

33 

0-55 

0-44 

10 

23-33 

18-67 

32 

0 

0 

11 

23-89 

19-11 

31 

-0-55 

—0-44 

12 

24-44 

19-56 

30 

Ml 

0-89 

13 

25 

20 

29 

1-67 

1-33 

14 

25-55 

20-44 

28 

2-22 

1-78 

15 

26-11 

20-89 

27 

2-78 

2-22 

16 

26-67 

21-33 

26 

3-33 

2-67 

17 

27-22 

21-78 

25 

3-89 

3-11 

18 

27-78 

22-22 

24 

4-44 

3-56 

19 

28-33 

22-67 

23 

5 

4 

20 

28-89 

23-11 

22 

5-55 

4-44 

21 

29-44 

23-56 

21 

6-11 

4-89 

22 

30 

24 

20 

6-67 

5-33 

23 

30-55 

24-44 

19 

7-22 

5-78 

24 

31-11 

24-89 

18 

7-78 

6-22 

25 

31-67 

25-33 

17 

8-33 

6-67 

26 

32-22 

25-78 

16 

8-89 

7-11 

27 

32-78 

26-22 

15 

9-44 

7-56 

28 

33-33 

26-67 

14 

10 

8 

29 

33-89 

27-11 

13 

10-55 

8-44 

30 

34-44 

27-56 

12 

11-11 

8-89 

31 

35 

28 

11 

11-67 

9-33 

32 

35-55 

28-44 

10 

12-22 

9-78 

33 

36-11 

28-89 

9 

12-78 

10-22 

34 

36-67 

29-33 

8 

13-33 

10-67 

35 

37-22 

29-78 

7 

13-89 

11-11 

36 

37-78 

30-22 

6 

14-44 

11-56 

37 

38-33 

30-67 

5 

15 

12 

38 

38-89 

31-11 

4 

15-55 

12-44 

39 

39-44 

31-56 

3 

16-11 

12-89 

40 

40 

32 

2 

16-67 

13-33 

TABLES 


111 


COMPARISON    OF   FAHRENHEIT   AND    CENTIGRADE    SCALES 
FOR  TEMPERATURES    OVER    100°  F. 


F. 

c. 

F. 

c. 

F. 

c. 

100 

55-56 

1,300 

722-22 

2,500 

1388-89 

200 

111-11 

1,400 

777-78 

2,600 

1444-44 

300 

166-67 

,500 

833-33 

2,700 

1500-00 

400 

222-22 

,600 

888-89 

2,800 

1555-55 

500 

277-78 

,700 

944-44 

2,900 

1611-11 

600 

333-33 

,800 

1000-00 

3,000 

1666-66 

700 

388-89 

,900 

1055-56 

3,100 

1722-22 

800 

444-44 

2,000 

1111-11 

3,200 

1777-78 

900 

500-00 

2,100 

1166-67 

3,300 

1833-33 

1,000 

555-56 

2,200 

1222-22 

3,400 

1888-89 

1,100 

611-11 

2,300 

1277-78 

3,500 

1944-44 

1,200 

666-66 

2,400 

1333-33 

3,600 

2000-00 

The  number  representing  the 
hundreds  and  a  remainder.     The 

remainder  is  obtained  from  the  previous  table,  and  is  added 
to  the  number  given  in  this  table. 


0  F.  is  written  in  terms  of 
C.  corresponding  to  this 


WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 
BRITISH  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 

1.  APOTHECARIES  WEIGHT. 
20  Grains      =  1  Scruple. 
3  Scruples  =  1  Drachm  =  60  Grains. 
8  Drachms  =  1  Ounce     =  480  Grains. 

2.  AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 
437£  Grains  =  1  Ounce. 

16   Ounces  -  1  Pound  =  7000  Grains, 
ounce  =  109  grains  ;  £  ounce  =  219  grains  ;  f  ounce 


328  grains. 


3.  FLUID  MEASURE. 

60  Minims    =  1  Drachm. 

8  Drachms  =  1  Ounce     =  480  Minims. 
20  Ounces     =  1  Pint         =  160  Drachms  =  9600  Minims. 
2  Pints         =  1  Quart      =    40  Ounces     =    320  Drachms. 
4  Quarts      =  1  Gallon     =  160  Ounces     =  1280  Drachms. 
1  fluid  ounce  of  water  weighs  437£  grains,  therefore  every  minim 
weighs  0-91  grains. 


112         MATERIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 


METRIC  WEIGHTS   AND   MEASURES. 

The  unit  of  weight  is  the  gramme,  written  "gm."  ;  the 
sub-divisions  are  the  "  deci-  'Y  (1  10th),  "  centi-  "  (1  100th), 
and  "milligramme"  (11000th);  the  multiples  are  the 
"  deka-  "  (10  gm.)  and  "  hectogramme  "  (100  gm.),  but  in 
practice  it  is  usual  to  use  the  term  0-1  or  0-01  and  10  or 
100  grammes,  and  the  abbreviation  "  kilo."  for  1,000  gms. 

The  following  are  the  equivalents  of  Metric  Weights  and 
Measures  in  terms  of  Imperial  Weights  and  Measures  :  — 

LINEAR  MEASURE. 

1  Millimetre  (mm.)  (l/1000th  M.)  .  =       OO3937  inch. 
1  Centimetre  (1/lOOth  M.)      .        .  =       0-3937      „ 

(  39-370113  inches. 
1  Metre  (M.)  .....  =  \    3-280843  feet, 

(    1-0936143  yards. 
Kilometre  (1000  M.)       .        .        .  =       0-62137  mile. 

SQUARE  MEASURE. 

1  Square  Centimetre       .        .        .  =       0-155  square  inch. 
1  Square  Metre  (100  square  deci-  1   _  (  10-7639  square  feet. 
metres)     ....        f        1 

WEIGHT. 

I  Milligramme  (l/1000th  gm.)        . 
1  Gramme  (1  gm.)  .        .        .        . 

(looo  g,o.)     .      . 


1-196  square  yards. 

Anrirdvpois. 
0-015  grain. 
15-432      ., 


CONVERSION   OF   GRAINS.   OZS.,   LBS.,   QRS.,   CWTS.,  INTO 

KILOGRAMMES. 
7-716175  grains  =    0-5  grammes. 
15-432350      „       =    1-0 
154-323500      ,,       =  10-0 
437J  grains  =  1  oz.     =  28^  grammes, 
ozs.       =  1  Ib.     =  453-59 
Ib.        =  1  qr.     =  12  kilos.  712  grammes, 
qrs.      =  1  cwt.  =  112  Ibs.  =  50  kilos.  803  grammes. 


16 

28 

4 

20 


cwt.     =  1  ton    =  1016-06  kilos. 


1  oz,=  437*grs.=  28-3502  gms. 
2  „  =  875      „  =  56-6991      „ 
3  „  =1312*    „  =  850486      „ 
4  „  =1750      „  =1133981      „ 
5  „  =2187*    „  =141-7482      „ 
6  „  =2625     „  =1700972      „ 
7  „  =3062*    „  =198-4466      „ 
8  „  =3500     „  =226-7962      „ 

9  oz.  =  3937*  grs.  =  255-1457  gms. 
10  „   =4375     „    =283-4952     „ 
11  „  =4812*  „    =311-8448    „ 
12  „  =5250     „    =340-1942    „ 
13.,  =5687*  „    =368-5438    n 
14,,  =6125     „    =396-8933    „ 
15,,  =6562^   ..    =425-2428    „ 
16,.  =7000     „    =453-5923    „ 

TABLES 


113 


CONVEKSION   OF   POUNDS   INTO  KILOGRAMMES. 


Ibs, 

Ko. 

1 

= 

0-453 

2 

= 

0-906 

3 

= 

1-359 

4 

= 

1-812 

5 

= 

2-265 

6 

= 

2-719 

7 

= 

3-172 

8 

= 

3-625 

9 

— 

4-078 

10 

= 

4-531 

11 

= 

4-984 

12 

= 

5-437 

13 

= 

5-890 

14 

— 

6-343 

15 

= 

6-796 

16 

=: 

7-249 

17 

r-r 

7-702 

18 

= 

8-155 

19 

= 

8-608 

20 

m 

9-062 

21 

— 

9-515 

22 

= 

9-968 

23 

= 

10-421 

24 

s= 

10-874 

25 

— 

11-327 

26 

= 

11-780 

27 

_ 

12-233 

28 

_ 

12-686 

29 

= 

13-139 

30 

= 

13-594 

Ibs. 

Ko. 

31 

=  14-047 

32 

=  14-500 

33 

=  14-953 

34 

=  15-406 

35 

=  15-859 

36 

=  16-312 

37 

=  16-765 

38 

=  17-218 

39 

=  17-671 

40 

=  18-125 

41 

=  18-578 

42 

=  19-031 

43 

=  19-484 

44 

=  19-937 

45 

=  20-390 

46 

=  20-843 

47 

=  21-296 

48 

=  21-749 

49 

=  22-202 

60 

=  22-656 

60 

=  27-187 

70 

=  31-719 

80 

=  36-250 

90 

=  40-781 

100 

=  45-302 

200 

=  90-625 

300 

=  135-937 

400 

=  181-250 

500 

=  226-562 

s. 


114 


MATEEIALS   USED   IN   SIZING 


CONVERSION  OF  GRAMMES  INTO  GRAINS  AND  OUNCES 
(AVOIRDUPOIS). 


Gins. 

Ozs.    Grs. 

Gms. 

Ozs.    Grs. 

Gms. 

Ozs.   Grs. 

0-1 

1-5 

16 

4   28-1 

130 

44   37 

0-2 

3-1 

17 

4   43-5 

140 

4|   82 

0-3 

4-6 

18 

|   59-0 

150 

5i  118 

0-4 

6-2 

19 

4   74-4 

160 

54   61 

0-5 

7-7 

20 

4   89-8 

170 

6     0 

0-6 

9-1 

25 

57-0 

175 

6    76 

0-7 

10-8 

30 

25 

180 

6i   44 

0-8 

12-4 

35 

103 

190 

64   88 

0-9 

13-9 

40 

i   71 

200 

7    24 

1 

15-43 

45 

4   38 

250 

8|   32 

2 

30-9 

50 

1    6 

300 

104   31 

3 

46-3 

55 

|   83 

350 

121   41 

4 

61-7 

60 

2    51 

400 

14    50 

5 

77-2 

65 

21   19 

450 

15|   52 

6 

92-6 

70 

2i   94 

500 

174   61 

7 

108-0 

75 

24   64 

550 

191   66 

8 

i   14-1 

80 

2|   32 

600 

21    70 

9 

29-5 

85 

3     0 

650 

22|   72 

10 

44-9 

90 

3    76 

700 

244   81 

11 

60-4 

95 

3i   44 

750 

26^   91 

12 

75-8 

100 

34   11 

800 

28    95 

13 

91-2 

110 

3|   56 

850 

29|  102 

14 

106-7 

120 

4   102 

900 

3l|  106 

15 

{   12-7 

125 

4J   70 

1,000 

35£   11 

Note. — In  the  above  table  the  British  equivalents  are 
given  in  the  form  most  convenient  for  actual  work,  viz.,  in 
even  ounces  and  quarter  ounces,  with  odd  grains  over.  If 
calculations  need  to  be  made,  the  following  figures  giving 
the  equivalents  of  ounces  and  quarter  ounces  in  grains  will 
be  found  useful : — 


Soz.  =  109  grs. 
_  219 

If  oz.  =  765  grs. 
2  „  =  875  „ 

3i  ozs.  =  1,421  grs. 
8}  ,,  =1,531  , 

4|  ozs.  =  2,078  gr 
5J  ,,  =  2,296  , 

=  328  „ 

2J  „  =  984  „ 

31  „  =  1,640  , 

5&  „  =  2,406  , 

1 

=  437  ,, 

2j  „  =  1,094  „ 

4   „  =1,750  , 

6  „  =  2,625  , 

LI 

].'. 

=  546  .. 
=  656  „ 

2|  „  =  1,203  „ 
3  „  =  1,312  „ 

41  „  =1,859  , 
4§  „  =1,969  , 

61  „  =  2,734  , 
6|  „  =  2,844  , 

TABLES 


115 


CONVERSION  OF  KILOGRAMMES  INTO  POUNDS. 


Kilogrammes 
into 

Cwts. 

Qrs. 

Lbs. 

Oz. 

Approximate 
conversion 
into  pounds. 

1 

0 

0 

2 

31 

2* 

2 

0 

0 

4 

gi 

4£ 

3 

0 

0 

6 

9| 

6ft 

4 

0 

0 

8 

13 

g| 

5 

0 

0 

11 

o* 

11 

6 

0 

0 

13 

8* 

13£ 

7 

0 

0 

15 

7 

15* 

8 

0 

0 

17 

101 

17f 

9 

0 

0 

19 

19J 

10 

0 

0 

22 

of 

221 

20 

0 

1 

16 

]1 

44£ 

30 

0 

2 

10 

2£ 

66| 

40 

0 

3 

4 

3 

88 

50 

0 

3 

26 

3| 

110^ 

60 

1 

0 

20 

132 

70 

1 

1 

14 

4 

154 

80 

1 

2 

8 

6 

176 

90 

1 

3 

2 

6i 

198 

100 

1 

3 

24 

7 

2201 

200 

3 

3 

20 

15 

441 

300 

5 

3 

17 

6 

6611 

400 

7 

3 

13 

14 

882 

500 

9 

3 

10 

5 

1102$ 

i  2 


116 


MATEKIALS   USED  IN   SIZING 


FLUID   MEASUKES. 

Pints    Quarts  Gallons      Litres 
2     =      1 

8     =     4     =     1     =     4-543 
1  Imp.  gallon  =  8  pints  =  32  gills  =  160  oz.  =  4  kil.  540  grms. 

1      „      =    4     „    =    20   „    =  0   „    567     „ 
In  English  works  2  noggins  =  1  gill.  (10  fl.  oz.) 

2  gills        =  1  pint. 
In  Scotch  works  4  gills  =  1  pint. 

(5fl.  oz.)   (20fl.oz.) 
1  U.S.  gallon    =  3-785  litres. 

1  Imp.       „       =  4-5436  „      =  4543  cubic  centimetres. 
1  „       water  =  10  Ibs.  Engl. 

1000  Imp.  gallons  =  10015  Ibs.  Engl.  =  4543  kilo. 
210  „      water  =  1  ton  =  35-943  cubic  feet. 

1  „  „      =  227£  cubic  inches  =  0-16  cubic  feet  =  10  Ibs. 

1  Imp.  pipe  =  572-48  litres. 
1U.  S.    „     =476-94      „ 

1  litre  =  100  centilitres  =  1  cubic  decimetre  =  1-76  Imp. 

[pint  =  2-114  U.  S.  pints. 
1  hectolitre  =  10  decalitres  =  100  litres. 
1  pint      =    34-65  cubic  inches  =         11  Ibs.  =      -568  litres. 


1  quart    =    69-31  „  2£  1-136       „ 

1  gallon  =  277-25          „  =       10  4-543      „ 

1  bushel  =     2218          „  =       80  36-348      „ 

1  cubic  inch  =  '0361  =  16-386  c.cs. 

1      „     foot  =  1728       „  =    62-5  =  28-315  litres. 

1      „        „    =    62-5  gallons. 
1      „     yard=  168-26    „ 
1  ton  of  water  =  35-76  cubic  feet  =  224  gallons. 


CONVERSION  OF  GALLONS  INTO  L1TEES. 


Imp.  galls. 

litres. 

1 

= 

4-5434 

2 

= 

9-0872 

3 

aa 

13-6308 

4 

= 

18-1748 

5 

= 

22-718 

6 

= 

27-2616 

7 

— 

31-8052 

8 

_ 

36-3488 

9 

= 

40-8924 

10 

= 

45-436 

20 

= 

90-872 

30       =   136-308 


Imp.  galls. 

litres. 

40 

= 

181-744 

50 

= 

227-180 

60 

= 

272-616 

70 

_ 

318-052 

80 

= 

363-488 

90 

_ 

408-924 

100 

= 

454-360 

200 

_ 

908-720 

300 

= 

1363-080 

400 

= 

1817-440 

500 

_ 

2271-800 

1000 

= 

4543-600 

TABLES 


117 


CONVERSION   OF   LITRES   INTO  GALLONS  AND   PINTS. 


Litres 

Gallons 

Pints 

Gills 

Litres 

Gallons 

Pints 

Gills 

1 

= 

1 

3-0430 

15 

= 

3 

2 

1-6480 

2 

= 

3 

2-0864 

16 

= 

3 

4 

0-6912 

3 

a 

5 

1-1296 

17 

= 

3 

5 

3-7344 

4 

— 

7 

0-1728 

18 

— 

3 

7 

2-7776 

5 

— 

8 

3-2160 

19 

— 

4 

1 

1-8208 

6 

= 

1 

2 

2-2592 

20 

33 

4 

3 

0-8640 

7 

= 

1 

4 

1-3024 

21 

"SB" 

4 

4 

3-9072 

8 

— 

1 

6 

0-3456 

22 

— 

4 

6 

2-9504 

9 

= 

1 

7 

3-3888 

23 

— 

5 

0 

1-9936 

10 

sa 

2 

1 

2-4320 

24 

= 

5 

2 

1-0368 

11 

— 

2 

3 

1-4752 

25 

aa 

5 

4 

0-0800 

12 

as 

2 

5 

0-5184 

50 

= 

11 

0 

0-1600 

13 

SB 

2 

6 

3-5616 

75 

-. 

16 

4 

0-2400 

14 

= 

3 

0 

2-6048 

100 

aa 

22 

0 

0-3200 

A  TABLE   OF  ATOMIC  WEIGHTS    OF   THE  CHEMICAL 

ELEMENTS. 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight  in 
Round 
Numbers. 

Accurate 
Atomic 
Weight. 

Aluminium 

Al 

27 

27-1 

Antimony 

Sb 

120 

120-2 

Argon    .... 

A 

40 

39-9 

Arsenic 

As 

75 

75-0 

Barium            ;• 

Ba 

137 

137-43 

Beryllium 

Be  =  Gl 

9-1 

9-1 

Bismuth         j 

Bi 

208 

208-0 

Boron          '  . 

B 

11 

11-00 

Bromine 

Br 

80 

79-96 

Cadmium 

Cd 

112 

112-4 

Caesium 

Cs 

133 

132-9 

Calcium 

Ca 

40 

40-1 

Carbon  .... 

C 

12 

12-0 

Cerium  .... 

Ce 

140 

140-25 

Chlorine 

Cl 

35-5 

35-451 

Chromium 

Cr 

52 

52-11 

Cobalt    .... 

Co 

59 

59-00 

Copper  .... 

Cu 

63-5 

63-60 

118 


MATEEIALS  USED  IN   SIZING 


A  TABLE    OF   ATOMIC   WEIGHTS    OF   THE    CHEMICAL 

ELEMENTS — continued. 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight  in 
Round 
Numbers. 

Accurate 
Atomic 
Weight. 

Erbium 

Er 

166 

166-0 

Fluorine 

F 

19 

19-0 

Gadolinium     . 

Gd 

156 

156-01 

Gallium. 

Ga 

70 

70-0 

Germanium     . 

Ge 

72-5 

72-5 

Gold       . 

Au 

197 

197-2 

Helium 

He 

4 

4-0 

Hydrogen 

H 

1 

1-008 

Indium 

In 

115 

115-0 

Iodine    .... 

I 

127 

126-97 

Iridium 

Ir 

193 

193-0 

Iron       .... 

Fe 

56 

55-9 

Lanthanum     . 

La 

139 

138-9 

Lead      .... 

Pb 

207 

206-92 

Lithium 

Li 

7 

7-03 

Magnesium     . 

Mg 

24 

24-36 

Manganese 

Mn 

55 

55-0 

Mercury 
Molybdenum  . 

Hg 
Mo 

200 
96 

200-0 
96-0 

Neodymium    . 

Nd 

144 

143-6 

Nickel    .... 

Ni 

59 

58-70 

Niobium 

Nb  =  Cb 

94 

94-0 

Nitrogen 

N 

14 

14-04 

Osmium 

Os 

191 

191-0 

Oxygen  (Standard) 

0 

16 

16-0 

Palladium 

Pd 

106 

106-5 

Phosphorus     . 

P 

31 

31-0 

TABLES 


119 


A   TABLE    OF    ATOMIC  WEIGHTS    OF   THE    CHEMICAL 

ELEMENTS — continued. 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Atomic 
Weight  in 
Round 

Numbers. 

Accurate 
Atomic 
Weight. 

Platinum 

Pt 

195 

194-8 

Potassium 

K 

39 

39-15 

Praseodymium 

Pr 

141 

140-5 

Khodium 

Rh 

103 

103-0 

Rubidium 

Rb 

85 

85-5 

Ruthenium 

Ru 

102 

101-7 

Samarium 

Sm 

150 

150-3 

Scandium 

Sc 

44 

44-1 

Selenium 

Se 

79 

79-2 

Silicon   .... 

Si 

28 

28-4 

Silver     .... 

Ag 

108 

107-93 

Sodium 

Na 

23 

23-05 

Strontium 

Sr 

87-5 

87-6 

Sulphur. 

S 

32 

32-06 

Tantalum 

Ta 

183 

183-0 

Tellurium 

Te 

128 

127-6 

Terbium 

Tb 

160 

160-0 

Thallium 

Tl 

204 

204-1 

Thorium 

Th 

233 

232-5 

Thulium 

Tu 

171 

171-0 

Tin         .... 

Sn 

119 

119-0 

Titanium 

Ti 

48 

48-1 

Tungsten     ^S 

W 

184 

184-0 

Uranium 

U 

238-5 

238-5 

Vanadium 

V 

51 

51-4 

Ytterbium 

Yb 

173 

173-0 

Yttrium 

Yt 

89 

89-0 

Zinc        . 

Zn 

65-5 

65-4 

Zirconium 

Zr 

91 

90-6 

INDEX 


ACID,  acetic,  density  of  solutions 

of,  100 

,,      carbolic  as  antiseptic,  5,  73 
„      cresylic  as  antiseptic,  5,  74 
„      hydrochloric,  density  of,  90 
„      in  calcium  chloride,  64 
„      in  calcium  sulphate,  36 
„      in  tallow,  49 
„      in  zinc  chloride,  64 
„      normal  hydrochloric,  86 
„      salicylic  as  antiseptic,  5, 72 
„      sulphuric,  density  of,  90 
Adulteration  of  tallow,  effect  of, 

49 
Agglutinants,  functions  of,  3 

„  list  of,  4 

Alkalies — action  of,  on  starches, 

8 

„          free,  in  soaps,  57 
Ammonia  solution,  density  of,  95 
Analysis  of  sized  goods,  qualita- 
tive, 76 

„        quantitative,  79 
Antiseptics,  quantity  required — 
„  cresol,  74 

„  phenol,  73 

salicylic  acid,  73 
thymol,  73 
zinc  chloride,  71 
detection  of,  77 
list  of,  3,  5,  67 
Apothecaries'  weight,  111 
Apparatine,  8 
Arrowroot,  20 
Atomic  weights,  117 
Avoirdupois  weight,  111 

BARIUM  sulphate  as  'weighting 
ingredient,  37 


Barium    sulphate,    detection  of, 

78 
„  sulphate,  estimation  of, 

82 
Bone  fat,  50 

CALCIUM  chloride    as    softener, 

5,  63 
„  „         and    soluble 

sulphates,  35 

, ,       chloride,  density  of  solu- 
tions of,  97 

„       chloride  in  glycerine,  65 
,,      chloride  in   magnesium 

chloride,  62 

„       chloride  in  tallow,  38 
„       chloride  in  zinc  chloride, 

68 
„  hypochlorite  in  calcium 

chloride,  64 

„      salts,  detection  of,  77,  78 
„          „     estimation  of,  82 
,,      sulphate,   as    weighting 

ingredient,  36 

„      sulphate,  detection  of,  78 
Carbolic  acid  as  antiseptic,  5,  73 
Carrageen,  Irish  moss,  26 
Casein,  30 
Cassava,  20 

Castor  oil  as  softener,  4,  51 
Cellulose,  starch,  6 

,,        in  corn  flour,  19 
„        in  rice  flour,  20 
„        in  wheat  flour,  13 
China  clay,  2 

„        „    composition  of,  32 
„         „    detection  of,  78,  79 
„        ,,    estimation  of,  82 
„         „    use  in  sizing,  34 


122 


INDEX 


China  clay,  valuation  of,  33 
Chlorides,  detection  of,  77 
„          estimation  of,  83 
Chloroform,  in  flour  analysis,  13 
Cloth,  construction  of,  1 
Cocoanut  oil  as  softener,  4,  50 
Colour  of  flour,  comparison  of,  13 
Colouring  matters  in  china  clay, 

33 
Corn  flour,  composition  of,  19 

„    starch,  as  agglutinant,  4 

„          „      measurement  of 
granules,  10 

„          „      use  of  in  sizing,  19 
Cotton  seed  oil  as  softener,  4 
„         „      ,,  in  tallow,  38 
Cresylic  acid  as  antiseptic,  5,  74 


DELIQUESCENTS,  61 

Dextrin,  as  agglutinant,  4 
„        detection  of,  76 
„        examination  of,  23 
„        in  wheat  flour,  13 
„        preparation,  9,  22 
,,        use  of,  in  sizing,  24 

Diastase,  action  of  on  starches, 
9,  21,  22 

Dragon,  gum,  24 


EPSOM  salts,  35 


FACTOR  for  normal  solutions,  88 
Farina,  as  agglutinant,  4 

„      measurement  of  granules, 

10 

„       use  of,  in  sizing,  18 
„       valuation  of,  16 
Fat,  determination  of,  in  gelatine, 

29 
„    determination  of    in    sized 

goods,  79 

Fatty  acids  in  soaps,  54 
„        „      free,  in  soaps,  59 
„         „        „     in  tallow,  49 
Firing,  tendering  caused  during, 
62 


Flash  point  of  tallow,  46 
Flour,  2 

„      steeping,  15 

„      wheat  and  rice  as  agglu- 

tinants,  4 

,,      wheat,  valuation  of,  13 
Fluid  measures,  111,  116 
Formic   aldehyde  as   antiseptic, 

5,74 

„      aldehyde,  action  on  gela- 
tine, 28 
„       aldehyde,       action       on 

casein,  31 

„      aldehyde,  density  of  solu- 
tions of,  101 


GALLONS  into  litres,  conversion 

of,  116, 
Gelatine,  27 

„        detection  of,  78 
„         valuation  of,  28 
Gelatinisation  of  starches,  7 
Glucose,  as  glycerine  substitute, 

63,  65,  66 

,,        as  softener,  5,  56 
„        detection  of,  77 
,,        in  wheat  flour,  13 
,,        preparation  by  means  of 

diastase,  9 
Glue,  27 

„      detection  of,  75 

„      distinction  between    bone 

and  hide,  29 
Gluten,  in  corn  flour,  19 

„       in  wheat   flour,   percen- 
tage, 13 

„       in   wheat  flour,   estima- 
tion, 14 

Glycerine  as  softener,  2,  5,  65 
„        density  of  solutions  of, 

101 

„        detection  of,  77 
„        substitute,  63 
Grammes  into  grains  and  ounces, 

conversion  of,  114 
Granulose,  starch,  6 
Gums,  detection  of,  78 
Gum  tragacanth  as  agglutinant,  4 


INDEX 


123 


Gum  tragacanth,  analysis  of,  25 
„  „          properties  of,  24 

„     tragasol  as  agglutinant,  4 
,,          „        properties  of,  25 

HEALDS,  1 

Heat,  action  of,  on  starches,  7 

Hilum,  9 

Hydrochloric  acid,  density  of,  90 

„  „     norma'l,  87 

Hydrometer,  52 

,,          scales,     comparison 

of,  102 
Hygroscopic  substances,  4,  61 

ICELAND  moss  as  agglutinant,  4 
,,  „     properties  of,  26 

Identification  of  starches,  9 
Iodine  absorption,  determination 

of,  42 

„  ,,        of  softeners,  53 

„      blue  colour  with   starch, 

7,  78 

„      for  estimation  of  starch,  7 
for  estimation  of  starch  in 

dextrin,  24 

Irish  moss  as  agglutinant,  4 
„        „    properties  of,  26 
Iron  oxide  in  calcium  chloride,  64 
„        „      in  calcium  sulphate,  36 
,,        „     in  china  clay,  34 
„        „     in  Epsom  salts,  35 
„        „      in  magnesium  chloride, 

62 

„        „      zinc  chloride,  71 
Isinglass,  28 

JAPAN  wax  as  softener,  4,  53 

KAOLIN,  32 

Kilograms  into   pounds,  conver- 
sion of,  115 

LEAD  chloride  in  zinc  chloride, 

70 
Linear  measure,  conversion  table, 

112 


Litres  into   gallons    and    pints, 
conversion  of,  117 


MAGNESIUM  chloride,  2 

,,  chloride     as     deli- 

quescent, 61 
,,  chloride  as  softener, 

5,  61 
„  chloride    cause     of 

tendering,  62 
,,  chloride,  density  of 

solutions  of,  98 
,,  chloride    in    Epsom 

salts,  35 
„  chloride  in  glycerine, 

65 
„  chloride   in   tallow, 

38 
,.  chloride     in      zinc 

chloride,  68 
„  salts,    detection  of, 

77,78 
,,  salts,  estimation  of, 

82 

,,  sulphate,  as  weight- 

ing material,  35 
,,  sulphate,  density  of 

solutions  of,  98 
„  sulphate   in  magne- 

sium chloride,  61 
,,  sulphate      in    zinc 

chloride,  69 

Maize  starch,  as  agglutinant,  4 
,,  „        measurement    of 

granules,  10 
Malt    extract,    action      of     on 

starches,  9,  21,  22 
Maltose,  preparation  by  means  of 

diastase,  9 
Marrow  fat,  50 
Measurement  of  starch  granules, 

9,  10 
Melting  point,  determination  of, 

47 

„          „      of  softeners,  53 
Metric  weights  and  measures,  112 
Micrometer,  9 
Mildew,  3 


124 


INDEX 


Mildew,  conditions  necessary  for 

growth  of,  5,  72 
Mineral  matters  in  flour,  13 

,,      in  gelatin,  29 
oil  and  wax  in  tallow,  41 
Moisture,  in  calcium  sulphate,  37 
in  china  clay,  32 
in  corn  flour,  19 
in  farina,  17 
in  sago,  18 
in  sized  goods,  79 
in  soaps,  60 
in  starches,  6 
in  tallow,  46 
in  wheat  flour,  13 
Monopol  soap,  57 
Moss,  Iceland,  26 
„     Irish,  26 


NITROGEN,  percentage  in  gelatin, 

27 

„  „          in  gluten, 

14 


OILS  used  as  softeners,  4 
Oleine  oil  as  softener,  4 

„      „   fatty  acids  in,  57 
Olive  oil,  51 


PALM  oil  as  softener,  4,  51 
Paraffin  wax  as  softener,  4,  50 
Pastes,  comparison  of  starch,  17 
Phenol  as  antiseptic,  5,  73 
Phosphates  in  tallow,  49 
Potato  starch  as  agglutinant,  4 

„          „      measurement        of 
granules,  10 

„          „       use  of  in  sizing,  18 
Pounds  into  kilos,  conversion  of 

113 

Proteids  in  rice  flour,  20 
Pure  size,  2 


QUANTITATIVE  analysis  of  sized 
goods,  79 


KECOVERED  grease,  45 

Keeds,  1,3 

Kice  as  agglutinant,  4 

„    flour,  composition  of,  20 
„   starch,     measurement     of 

granules,  10 
„       „      use  of  in  sizing,  21 


SAARE'S    method    of    moisture 

determination,  17 
Sago,  as  agglutinant,  4 

„      measurement  of  granules, 

10 
„      valuation    and  use  of  in 

sizing,  18 

Salicylic  acid  as  antiseptic,  5,  73 
Saponification  equivalent,  deter- 
mination of,  39 
„  equivalent    of 

softeners,  53 

Silver  nitrate,  decinormal,  89 
Singeing,  tendering  caused  dur- 
ing, 62 
Size,  bone,  28 

„     estimation  of  total,  79 
Sizing,  reasons  for,  2 
„      ingredients,  3 
Soaps  as  softeners,  4,  54 
detection  of,  78 
fatty  acids  in,  54,  59 
free  alkalies  in,  58 
moisture  in,  60 
sodium  silicate  in,  59 
Sodium  salts,  detection  of,  77 
„        carbonate,  normal,  87 
„        chloride,  density  of  solu- 
tions of,  99 
„  „        in    magnesium 

chloride,  61 
,,  „        in  zinc  chloride, 

68 

„        hydroxide,      added     to 
farina  size,  1 7 
„  „       added  to  sago, 

19 

„  „       density    of 

solution  of,  94 


INDEX 


125 


Sodium  hydroxide,  normal  solu- 
tion of,  88 

,,       silicate  in  soaps,  59 
,,      sulphate    as     weighting 
material,  35 

„  „          density         of 

solutions  of, 
99 

,,  ,,          in  magnesium 

chloride,  69 

,,  „          in  zinc  chlor- 

ide, 69 

Sodium  thiosulphate,  normal,  89 
Soft  beams,  17 
Softeners,  2 

„        constants  of,  50 
,,         functions  of,  4 
„        list  of,  4,  38 
Soluble  starch,  as  agglutinant,  4 
„       oil,  57 

„        „     preparation,  9,  21 
„        ,,     use  of  in  sizing,  22 
„        „     valuation  of,  21 
Soxhlet  fat  extraction  apparatus, 

80 
Specific    gravity,    determination 

of,  52 

Spermaceti  as  softener,  4,  52 
Square  measure,  conversion  table, 

112 

Starches  as  agglutinants,  4 
„      action  of  alkalies  on,  8 
application  and  valuation 

of,  10 

comparison  of  value  of,  8 
estimation  of,  7,  84 
general  properties  of,  6 
iodine,  test  for,  7 
measurement  of  granules 

of,  9,  10 
„      swelling       temperatures 

of,  7 

„      viscosity  of  solutions  of,  8 
Starch  in  tallow,  46 
Stearin  as  softener,  4,  51 
Steeping  of  flour,  15 

„  „    zinc      chloride 

in,  16 
Sulphates,  detection  of,  77 


Sulphates,  estimation  of,  83 
Sulphuric  acid,  table  of  densities 

of,  91 
Swelling  temperatures  of  starches, 

7 


TABLES  of  densities,  90 
Tallow,  adulteration  of,  4 
„      as  softener,  4 
„      calcium     phosphate      in, 

49 

„      melting  point  of,  47 
Tapioca,  as  agglutinant,  4 

„        measurement  of  gran- 
ules of,  10 

,,        use  of,  in  sizing,  20 
Tendering  due  to  lead  oxide,  70 

„          during  singeing,  62 
Thermometric  scales,  comparison 

of,  105 

Thymol  as  antiseptic,  5,  73 
Tragucanth,  gum,  24 
Tragasol,  gum,  25 
Turkey-red  oil,  57 


UNSAPONIFIABLE   matter,  esti- 
mation of,  41 


VALUATION  of  starches,  10 

by  alkali, 

Vaporising  point  of  tallow,  46 
Viscosity  of  starch  solutions,  8 
Volumetric  solutions,  preparation 
of,  86 


WARP  and  weft,  1 
Waxes  used  as  softeners,  4 
Weighting  materials,  list  of,  32 
Weights  and  measures,  English, 

111 

„  „  metric, 

112 


126 


INDEX 


Wheat  flour  as  agglutinant,  4 
„        „     composition  of,  13 
„      starch,    measurement    of 
granules,  10 

Wijs'  solution,  43 


ZINC   chloride    as    antiseptic,  5, 
67,  71 


Zinc    chloride  as  weighting 

ingredient.  72 

„  „        density  of    solu- 

tions of,  96 

„  „        in  flour  steep,  16 

Zinc  salts,  detection  of,  77 
„       „      estimation  of,  82 
Zinc  sulphate  as  antiseptic,  5,  67 
»          ,,         density  of  solutions 
of,  96 


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This  list  includes  the  technical  publications  of  the  following  English 
publishers : 

SCOTT,  GREENWOOD  &  CO.  CROSBY  LOCKWOOD   &  SON 

CONSTABLE  &  COMPANY,  Ltd.     TECHNICAL  PUBLISHING  CO. 

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JANUARY,  1912 

SHORT-TITLE    CATALOG 

OF  THE 

Publications  and  Importations 

OF 

D.   VAN    NOSTRAND    COMPANY 

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ABC  Code.     (See  Clausen-Thue.) 

Abbott,  A.  V.     The  Electrical  Transmission  of  Energy 8vo,  *$5  oo 

—  A  Treatise  on  Fuel.     (Science  Series  No.  9.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Testing  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  74.) i6mo,  o  50 

Adam,  P.     Practical  Bookbinding.     Trans,  by  T.  E.  Maw.i2mo,  *2  50 

Adams,  H.  C.    Sewage  of  Seacoast  Towns 8vo,  *2  oo 

Adams,  H.     Theory  and  Practice  in  Designing 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Adams,  J.  W.     Sewers  and  Drains  for  Populous  Districts...  .8vo,  2  50 

Addyman,  F.  T.     Practical  X-Ray  Work 8vo,  *4  oo 

A i  Code.     (See  Clausen-Thue.) 

Aikman,  C.  M.     Manures  and  the  Principles  of  Manuring. .  .8vo,  2  50 
Aitken,  W.    Manual  of  the  Telephone.    Two  Volumes. 

d'Albe,  E.  E.  F.     Contemporary  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  25 

Alsxander,  J.  H.     Elementary  Electrical  Engineering i2mo,  2  oo 

—  Universal  Dictionary  of  Weights  and  Measures 8vo,  3  50 

"  Alfrec."     Wireless  Telegraph  Designs 

Allan,    W.     Strength    of    Beams    under     Transverse    Loads. 

(Science  Series  No.  19.) i6mo,  o  50 

Theory  of  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  n.) i6mo, 


I).  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG      3 

Allen,  H.     Modern  Power  Gas  Producer  Practice  and  Applica- 
tions   i2mo,  *2  50 

Gas  and  Oil  Engines 8vo,  *4  50 

Anderson,  F.  A.     Boiler  Feed  Water 8vo,  *2  50 

Anderson,  Cap.  G.  L.     Handbook  for  the  Use  of  Electricians  .8vo,  3  oo 

Anderson,  J.  W.     Prospector's  Handbook i2mo,  i  50 

Andes,  L.     Vegetable  Fats  and  Oils 8vo,  *4  oo 

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Drying  Oils,  Boiled  Oil,  and  Solid  and  Liquid  Driers . . .  8vo,  *5  oo 

Iron  Corrosion,   Anti-fouling  and   Anti-corrosive   Paints. 

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H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Treatment  of  Paper  for  Special  Purposes.     Trans,  by  C. 

Salter i2mo,  *2  50 

Annual  Reports  on  the  Progress  of  Chemistry. 

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Vol.    II.  (1905) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Vol.  III.  (1906) 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Vol.  VII.  (1910) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Argand,  M.     Imaginary  Quantities.     Translated  from  the  French 

by  A.  S.  Hardy.     (Science  Series  No.  52.) i6mo,  o  50 

Armstrong,  R.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Chimneys  for  Furnaces  and 

Steam  Boilers.     (Science  Series  No.  i.) i6mo,  o  50 

Arnold,  E.     Armature  Windings  of  Direct  Current  Dynamos. 

Trans,  by  F.  B.  DeGress 8vo,  *2  oo 

Ashe,  S.  W.,  and  Keiley,  J.  D.     Electric  Railways.     Theoreti- 
cally and  Practically  Treated.     Vol.  I.  Rolling  Stock 

i2mo,  *2  50 

Ashe,   S.   W.     Electric   Railways.     Vol.   II.  Engineering  Pre- 
liminaries and  Direct  Current  Sub-Stations i2mo,  *2  50 

Electricity :     Experimentally    and     Practically    Applied . 

i2mo,  *2  oo 

Atkinson,  A.  A.     Electrical  and  Magnetic  Calculations 8vo,  *i  50 

Atkinson,   J.   J.     Friction   of  Air   in  Mines.     (Science   Series 

No.  14.) i6mo.  o  50 


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Atkinson,  J.  J.,  and  Williams,  E.  H.,  Jr.     Gases  Met  with  in 

Coal  Mines.     (Science  Series  No.  13.) i6mo,  o  50 

Atkinson,  P.     The  Elements  of  Electric  Lighting i2mo,  i  50 

The  Elements  of    Dynamic    Electricity  and    Magnetism. 

i2mo,  2  oo 

Power  Transmitted  by  Electricity i2mo,  2  oo 

Auchincloss,  W.  S.     Link  and  Valve  Motions  Simplified. ..  .8vo,  *i  50 

Ayrton,  H.     The  Electric  Arc 8vo,  *s  oo 

Bacon,  F.  W.     Treatise  on  the  Richards  Steam-Engine  Indica- 
tor   i2mo,  i  oo 

Bailes,  G.  M.  Modern  Mining  Practice.  Five  Volumes. 8 vo,  each,  3  50 

Bailey,  R.  D.     The  Brewers'  Analyst 8vo,  *s  oo 

Baker,  A.  L.     Quaternions i2mo,  *i  25 

Thick-Lens  Optics (In  Press.) 

Baker,  Benj.     Pressure  of  Earthwork.     (Science  Series  No.  56.) 

i6mo, 

Baker,  I.  0.     Levelling.     (Science  Series  No.  91.) i6mo,  o  50 

Baker,  M.  N.     Potable  Water.     (Science  Series) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Purification.     (Science  Series  No.  18.) 

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Baker,    T.    T.       Telegraphic    Transmission    of    Photographs. 

i2mo,  *i  25 

Bale,   G.  R.    Modern  Iron  Foundry  Practice.  Two  Volumes. 

i2mo. 

Vol.   I.  Foundry  Equipment,  Material  Used *2  50 

Vol.  II.  Machine  Moulding  and  Moulding  Machines *i  50 

Bale,  M.  P.     Pumps  and  Pumping i2mo,  i  50 

Ball,  R.  S.     Popular  Guide  to  the  Heavens 8vo,  *4  50 

—  Natural  Sources  of  Power.     (Westminster  Series) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Ball,  W.  V.     Law  Affecting  Engineers 8vo,  *3  50 

Bankson,  Lloyd.     Slide  Valve  Diagrams.     (Science  Series  No. 

108.) i6mo,  o  50 

Barba,  J.  Use  of  Steel  for  Constructive  Purposes i2mo,  i  oo 

Barham,  G.  B.  Development  of  the  Incandescent  Electric 

Lamp (In  Press.) 

Barker,  A.  Textiles  and  Their  Manufacture.  (Westminster 

Series) 8vo,  2  oo 

Barker,  A.  H.  Grapic  Methods  of  Engine  Design i2mo,  *i  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG      5 

Barnard,  F.  A.  P.     Report  on  Machinery  and  Processes  of  the 
Industrial  Arts  and  Apparatus  of  the  Exact  Sciences  at 

the  Paris  Universal  Exposition,   1867 8vo,  5  oo 

Barnard,  J.  H.     The  Naval  Miliatiaman's  Guide. . i6mo,  leather,  i  25 
Barnard,  Major  J.  G.     Rotary  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  90.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Barrus,  G.  H.     Boiler  Tests 8vo,  *a  oo 

Engine  Tests 8vo,  *4  oo 

The  above  two  purchased  together *6  oo 

Barwise,  S.     The  Purification  of  Sewage i2mo,  3  50 

Baterden,  J.  R.     Timber.     (Westmenster  Series) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Bates,  E.  L.,  and  Charlesworth,  F.     Practical  Mathematics  and 

Geometry  for  Technical  Students i2mo, 

Part   I.    Preliminary  and  Elementary  Course *i  50 

Part  II.    Advanced  Course *i  50 

Beadle,  C.     Chapters  on  Papermaking.     Five  Volumes 

i2mo,  each,  *2  oo 

Beaumont,  R.     Color  in  Woven  Design 8vo, 

Finishing  of  Textile  Fabrics 8vo,  *4  oo 

Beaumont,  W.  W.     The  Steam-Engine  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

Bedell,  F.,  and  Pierce,  C.  A.     Direct  and  Alternating  Current 

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Beech,  F.     Dyeing  of  Cotton  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Dyeing  of  Woolen  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Beckwith,  A.     Pottery 8vo,  paper,  o  60 

Beggs,  G.  E.     Stresses  in  Railway  Girders  and  Bridges (In  Press.) 

Begtrup,  J.     The  Slide  Valve 8vo,  *2  oo 

Bender,  C.  E.     Continuous  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  26.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Proportions  of  Piers  used  in  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  4.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Bennett,  H.G.      The  Manufacture  of  Leather 8vo,  *4  50 

Bernthsen,  A.     A  Text-book  of  Organic  Chemistry.     Trans,  by 

G.  M'Gowan i2mo,  *2  50 

Berry,  W.  J.     Differential  Equations  of  the  First  Species. 

i2mo  (In  Preparation.) 
Bersch,  J.     Manufacture  of  Mineral  and  Lake  Pigments.     Trans. 

by  A.  C.  Wrigkt 8vo,  *s  oo 

Bertin,  L.  E.     Marine  Boilers.     Trans,  by  L.  S.  Robertson .  .8vo,  5  oo 


6      D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Beveridge,  J.     Papermaker's  Pocket  Book i2mo,  *4  oo 

Binns,  C.  F.      Ceramic  Technology 8vo,  *5  oo 

—  Manual  of  Practical  Potting 8vo,  *7  50 

—  The  Potter's  Craft i2mo,  *2  oo 

Birchmore,  W.  H.     How  to  Use  a  Gas  Analysis i2mo,  *i  25 

Blaine,  R.  G.     The  Calculus  and  Its  Applications i2mo,  *i  50 

Blake,  W.  H.     Brewers'  Vade  Mecum 8vo,  *4  oo 

Blake,  W.  P.     Report  upon  the  Precious  Metals 8vo,  2  oo 

Bligh,  W.  G.     The  Practical  Design  of  Irrigation  Works 8vo,  *6  oo 

Blucher,  H.     Modern  Industrial  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  J.  P. 

Millington 8vo,  *7  50 

Blyth,  A.  W.     Foods:  Their  Composition  and  Analysis 8vo,  750 

Poisons:  Their  Effects  and  Detection 8vo,  7  50 

Bockmann,  F.     Celluloid 12010,  *2  50 

Bodmer,  G.  R.     Hydraulic  Motors  and  Turbines i2mo,  5  oo 

Boileau,  J.  T.     Traverse  Tables 8vo,  5  oo 

Bonney,  G.  E.     The  Electro-platers'  Handbook i2mo,  i  20 

Booth,  W.  H.     Water  Softening  and  Treatment 8vo,  *2  50 

Superheaters  and  Superheating  and  their  Control.  .  .  .8vo,  *i  50 

Bottcher,  A.     Cranes:  Their  Construction,  Mechanical  Equip- 
ment and  Working.     Trans,  by  A.  Tolhausen. . .  -4to,  *io  oo 
Bottler,  M.     Modern  Bleaching  Agents.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 

i2mo,  *2  50 

Bottone,  S.  R.      Magnetos  for  Automobilists i2mo,  *i  oo 

Boulton,  S.  B.     Preservation  of  Timber.     (Science  Series  No. 

82.) i6mo,  o  50 

Bourgougnon,  A.     Physical  Problems.     (Science  Series  No.  113.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Bourry,   E.      Treatise   on   Ceramic    Industries.       Trans,   by 

W.  P.  Rix 8vo,  *5  oo 

Bow,  R.  H.     A  Treatise  on  Bracing 8vo,  i  50 

Bowie,  A.  J.,  Jr.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Hydraulic  Mining .  8 vo,  5  oo 

Bowker,  W.  R.     Dynamo  Motor  and  Switchboard  Circuits . .  8vo,  *2  50 

Bowles,  O.     Tables  of  Common  Rocks.     (Science  Series)  .  i6mo,  o  50 

Bowser,  E.  A.    Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Geometry.  1 2mo,  175 

Elementary    Treatise    on    the    Differential    and    Integral 

Calculus i2mo,  2  25 

Elementary  Treatise  on  Analytic  Mechanics i2mo,  3  oo 

Elementary  Treatise  on  Hydro-mechanics . . i2mo,  2  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG      7 

Bowser,  E.  A.     A  Treatise  on  Roofs  and  Bridges i2mo,  *2  25 

Boycott,  G.  W.  M.     Compressed  Air  Work  and  Diving 8vo,  *4  oo 

Bragg,  E.  M.     Marine  Engine  Design i2mo,  *2  oo 

Brainard,    F.    R.      The    Sextant.      (Science    Series    No.    101.) 

i6mo, 

Brassey's  Naval  Annual  for  1911 8vo,  *6  oo 

Brew,  W.     Three-Phase  Transmission 8vo,  *2  oo 

Brewer,  R.  W.  A.     The  Motor  Car i2mo,  *2  oo 

Briggs,  R.,  and  Wolff,  A.  R.     Steam-Heating.     (Science  Series 

No.  67.) i6mo,  o  50 

Bright,  C.     The  Life  Story  of  Sir  Charles  Tilson  Bright 8vo,  *4  50 

British  Standard  Sections 8x15  *i  oo 

Complete  list  of  this  series  (45  parts)  sent  on  application. 
Broadfoot,  S.  K.     Motors  Secondary  Batteries.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) i2mo,  *o  75 

Broughton,  H.  H.    Electric  Cranes  and  Hoists *9  oo 

Brown,  G.     Healthy  Foundations.     (Science  Series  No.  80.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Brown,  H.     Irrigation 8vo,  *5  oo 

Brown,  Wm.  N.     The  Art  of  Enamelling  on  Metal i2mo,  *i  oo 

—  Handbook  on  Japanning  and  Enamelling i2mo,  *i  50 

—  House  Decorating  and  Painting i2mo,  *i  50 

—  History  of  Decorative  Art i2mo,  *i  25 

—  Dipping,    Burnishing,    Lacquering    and    Bronzing    Brass 

Ware i2mo,  * i  oo 

Workshop  Wrinkles 8vo,  *i  oo 

Browne,  R.  E.     Water  Meters.     (Science  Series  No.  81.).  i6mo,  o  50 

Bruce,  E.  M.     Pure  Food  Tests i2mo,  *i  25 

Bruhns,  Dr.     New  Manual  of  Logarithms 8vo,  half  mor.,  2  50 

Brunner,  R.     Manufacture  of  Lubricants,  Shoe  Polishes  and 

Leather  Dressings.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  oo 

Buel,  R.  H.     Safety  Valves.     (Science  Series  No.  21.). . .  .  i6mo,  o  50 
Bulmann,  H.  F.,  and  Redmayne,  R.  S.  A.  Colliery  Working  and 

Management 8vo,  6  oo 

Burgh,  N.  P.     Modern  Marine  Engineering 4to,  half  mor.,  10  oo 

Burt,  W.  A.     Key  to  the  Solar  Compass i6mo,  leather,  2  50 

Burton,   F.   G.      Engineering    Estimates    and  Cost   Accounts. 

i2mo,  *i  50 

Buskett,  E.  W.     Fire  Assaying i2mo,  *i  25 


8 

Cain,  W.     Brief  Course  in  the  Calculus i2mo,  *i  75 

—  Elastic  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  48.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Maximum  Stresses.     (Science  Series  No.  38.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Practical  Designing  Retaining  of  Walls.     (Science  Series 

No.  3.) i6mo,  o  50 

Theory  of  Steel-concrete  Arches  and  of  Vaulted  Structures. 

(Science  Series) i6mo,  o  50 

Theory  of  Voussoir   Arches.      (Science   Series    No.    12.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Symbolic  Algebra.     (Science  Series  No.  73.) i6mo,  o  50 

Campin,  F.     The  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs 8vo,  2  oo 

Carpenter,    F.    D.     Geographical   Surveying.     (Science    Series 

No.  37.) i6mo, 

Carpenter,  R.   C.,  and    Diederichs,   H.      Internal -Combustion 

Engines 8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  E.  T.     Motive  Power  and  Gearing  for  Electrical  Machin- 
ery  8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  H.  A.     Ramie  (Rhea),  China  Grass i2mo,  *2  oo 

Carter,  H.  R.     Modern  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  Spinning 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.     Machine  Design.     Part  I.  Fastenings 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.,  and  Chaffee,  J.  I.    Elements  of  Graphic  Statics 

and  General  Graphic  Methods 8vo,  *3  oo 

Short  Course  hi  Graphic  Statics i2mo,  *i  50 

Caven,  R.  M.,  and  Lander,  G.  D.     Systematic  Inorganic  Chemis- 
try  i2mo,  *2  oo 

Chambers'  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  i  75 

Charnock,  G.  F.     Workshop  Practice.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo  (In  Press.) 

Charpentier,  P.     Timber 8vo,  *6  oo 

Chatley,  H.     Principles  and  Designs  of  Aeroplanes.     (Science 

Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

How  to  Use  Water  Power , i2mo,  *i  oo 

Child,  C.  T.     The  How  and  Why  of  Electricity... i2mo,  i  oo 

Christie,  W.  W.     Boiler-waters,    Scale,   Corrosion,    Foaming. 

8vo,  *3  oo 

-  Chimney  Design  and  Theory 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Furnace  Draft.     (Science  Series) i6mo,  o  50 

Church's  Laboratory  Guide.     Rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch ..  8vo,  *2  50 

Clapperton,  G.     Practical  Papermaking 8vo,  2  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTKAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG      9 

Clark,  A.  G.    Motor  Car  Engineering.    Vol.  I.  Construction. 

(In  Press.) 

Clark,  C.  H.    Marine  Gas  Engines i2mo,  *i  50 

Clark,  D.  K.     Rules,  Tables  and  Data  for  Mechanical  Engineers 

8vo,  5  oo 

—  Fuel:  Its  Combustion  and  Economy i2mo,  i  50 

—  The  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocketbook i6mo,  2  oo 

-  Tramways:  Their  Construction  and  Working 8vo,  7  50 

Clark,  J.  M.     New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turnouts.. 

1 2 mo,  i  oo 
Clausen-Thue,  W.  ABC  Telegraphic  Code.  Fourth  Edition 

i2mo,  *s  oo 

Fifth  Edition 8vo,  *7  oo 

—  The  Ai  Telegraphic  Code 8vo,  *7  50 

Cleemann,  T.  M.     The  Railroad  Engineer's  Practice i2mo,  *i  50 

Clerk,  D.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Theory  of  the  Gas  Engine.     (Science 

Series  No.  62.) i6mo,  o  50 

Clevenger,  S.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Method  of  Government  Sur- 
veying  i6mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Clouth,  F.     Rubber,  Gutta-Percha,  and  Balata 8vo,  *5  oo 

Coffin,  J.  H.  C.     Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy i2mo,  *3  50 

Colburn,  Z.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.     Steam  Boiler  Explosions. 

(Science  Series  No.  2.) i6mo,  o  50 

Cole,  R.  S.     Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics i2mo,  i  50 

Coles-Finch,  W.     Water,  Its  Origin  and  Use 8vo,  *5  oo 

Collins,  J.  E.     Useful  Alloys  and  Memoranda  for  Goldsmiths, 

Jewelers i6mo,  o  50 

Constantine,  E.     Marine  Engineers,  Their    Qualifications   and 

Duties 8 vo,  *2  oo 

Coombs,  H.  A.     Gear  Teeth.     (Science  Series  No.  120). . .  i6mo,  o  50 

Cooper,  W.  R.     Primary  Batteries 8 vo,  *4  oo 

_ «  The  Electrician  "  Primers 8vo,  *s  oo 

Part  I *i  50 

Part  II *2  50 

Part  IH *2  oo 

Copperthwaite,  W.  C.     Tunnel  Shields 4to,  *g  oo 

Corey,  H.  T.  •  Water  Supply  Engineering 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Corfield,  W.  H.  Dwelling  Houses.  (Science  Series  No.  50.)  i6mo,  o  50 
Water  and  Water-Supply.     (Science  Series  No.  17.)  •  i6mo,  o  50 


10   D.  VAX  XOSTHAXI)  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Cornwall,  H.  B.     Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

Courtney,  C.  F.     Masonry  Dams 8vo,  3  50 

Cowell,  W.  B.     Pure  Air,  Ozone,  and  Water i2mo,  *2  oo 

Craig,  T.     Motion  of  a  Solid  in  a  Fuel.     (Science  Series  No.  49.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

-  Wave  and  Vortex  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  43.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Cramp,  W.     Continuous  Current  Machine  Design 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.     Electric  Lighting.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.   I.     The  Generating  Plant 3  oo 

Vol.  II.     Distributing  Systems  and  Lamps 3  oo 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Arendt,  M.     Electric  Motors 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Wheeler,  S.  S.     The  Management  of  Electri- 
cal Machinery i2mo,  *i  oo 

Cross,  C.  F.,  Bevan,  E.  J.,  and  Sindall,  R.  W.     Wood  Pulp  and 

Its  Applications.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.     Elementary  Prospective 8vo,  i  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.,  and  Thaw,  J.     Advanced  Perspective 8vo,  i  50 

Culley,  J.  L.     Theory  of  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  87.)i6mo,  o  50 

Davenport,  C.     The  Book.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Davies,  D.  C.     Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining 8vo,  5  oo 

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Davies,  E.  H.     Machinery  for  Metalliferous  Mines 8vo,  8  oo 

Davies,  F.  H.      Electric  Power  and  Traction 8vo,  ^*2  oo 

Dawson,  P.     Electric  Traction  on  Railways 8vo,  *Q  oo 

Day,  C.     The  Indicator  and  Its  Diagrams i2mo,  *2  oo 

Deerr,  N.     Sugar  and  the  Sugar  Cane 8vo,  *8  oo 

Deite,  C.     Manual  of  Soapmaking.     Trans,  by  S.  T.  King.  .4to,  *5  oo 
De  la  Coux,  H.     The  Industrial  Uses  of  Water.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris 8vo,  *4  50 

Del  Mar,  W.  A.     Electric  Power  Conductors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Denny,  G.  A.     Deep-Level  Mines  of  the  Rand 4to,  *io  oo 

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De  Roos,  J.  D.  C.     Linkages.     (Science  Series  No.  47.). . .  i6mo,  o  50 

Derr,  W.  L.     Block  Signal  Operation Oblong  i2mo,  *i  50 

Desaint,  A.     Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix  Them.  .8vo,  *io  oo 

De  Varona,  A.     Sewer  Gases.     (Science  Series  No.  55.)...  i6mo,  050 
Devey,  R.  G.     Mill  and  Factory  Wiring.     (Installation  Manuals 

Series.) .  .                                             i2mo,  *i  oo 


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Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water 8vo,  6  50 

Dichman,  C.    Basic  Open-Hearth  Steel  Process 8vo,  *3  50 

Dietrich,  K.     Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum  Resins  .8vo,  *3  oo 
Dinger,  Lieut.  H.  C.     Care  and  Operation  of  Naval  Machinery 

1 2 mo.  *2  oo 

Dixon,  D.  B.     Machinist's  and  Steam  Engineer's  Practical  Cal- 
culator   i6mo,  mor.,  i  25 

DobJe,  W.  A.     Power  Plant  Construction  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

(In  Press.) 
Dodd,  G.     Dictionary  of  Manufactures,  Mining,  Machinery,  and 

the  Industrial  Arts i2mo,  i  50 

Dorr,  B.  F.     The  Surveyor's  Guide  and  Pocket  Table-book. 

i6mo,  mor.,  2  oo 

Down,  P.  B.     Handy  Copper  Wire  Table i6mo,  *i  oo 

Draper,   C.    H.     Elementary   Text-book   of   Light,    Heat   and 

Sound i2mo,  i  oo 

Heat  and  the  Principles  of  Thermo-dynamics i2mo,  i  50 

Duckwall,  E.  W.    Canning  and  Preserving  of  Food  Products  .8 vo,  *5  oo 
Dumesny,  P.,  and  Noyer,  J.     Wood  Products,  Distillates,  and 

Extracts 8vo,  *4  50 

Duncan,  W.  G.,  and  Penman,  D.     The  Electrical  Equipment  of 

Collieries i 8vo,  *4  oo 

Duthie,    A.    L.     Decorative    Glass    Processes.     (Westminster 

Series) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Dyson,  S.  S.     Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials 8vo,  *s  oo 

Dyson,  S.  S.,  and  Clarkson,  S.  S.     Chemical  Works (In  Press.) 

Eccles,  R.G.,  and  Duckwall,  E.W.  Food  Preservatives.  8vo,  paper,  o  50 

Eddy,  H.  T.     Researches  in  Graphical  Statics 8vo,  i  50 

Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads 8vo,  i  50 

Edgcumbe,  K.     Industrial  Electrical  Measuring  Instruments . 

8vo,  *2  50 

Eissler,  M.     The  Metallurgy  of  Gold 8vo,  7  50 

The  Hydrometallurgy  of  Copper 8vo,  *4  50 

The  Metallurgy  of  Silver 8vo,  4  oo 

The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead 8vo,  5  oo 

Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Gold 8vo,  3  oo 

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12    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Ekin,  T.  C.     Water  Pipe  and    Sewage    Discharge  Diagrams 

folio,  *3  oo 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  and  Storer,  F.  H.    Compendious  Manual  of  Qualita- 
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Elliot,  Major  G.  H.     European  Light-house  Systems 8vo,  5  oo 

Ennis,  Wm.  D.     Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils   8vo,  *4  oo 

—  Applied  Thermodynamics 8vo,  *4  50 

Flying  Machines  To-day i2mo,  *i  50 

Vapors  for  Heat  Engines i2mo,  *i  oo 

Erfurt,  J.     Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp.     Trans,  by  J.  Hubner.  ..8vo,  *7  50 

Erskine -Murray,  J.     A  Handbook  of  Wireless  Telegraphy ..  8vo,  *3  50 

Evans,  C.  A.     Macadamized  Roads (In  Press.} 

Ewing,  A.  J.     Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fairie,  J.     Notes  on  Lead  Ores i2mo,  *i  oo 

Notes  on  Pottery  Clays i2mo,  *i  50 

Fairley,  W.,  and  Andre,  Geo.  J.     Ventilation  of  Coal  Mines. 

(Science  Series  No.  58.) i6mo,  o  50 

Fairweather,  W.  C.     Foreign  and  Colonial  Patent  Laws  . .  .8vo,  *3  oo 
Fanning,   T.    T.     Hydraulic   and   Water-supply    Engineering. 

8vo,  *s  oo 
Fauth,  P.     The  Moon  in  Modern  Astronomy.     Trans,  by  J. 

McCabe 8vo,  *2  oo 

Fay,  I.  W.    The  Coal-tar  Colors 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fernbach,  R.  L.    Glue  and  Gelatine 8vo,  *3  o* 

Chemical  Aspects  of  Silk  Manufacture i2mo,  *i  oo 

Fischer,  E.     The  Preparation  of  Organic  Compounds.     Trans. 

by  R.  V.  Stanford i2mo,  *i  25 

Fish,  J.  C.  L.     Lettering  of  Working  Drawing* Oblong  80,  i  oo 

Fisher,  H.  K.  C.,  and  Darby,  W.  C.     Submarine  Cable  Testing. 

8vo,  *3  50 

Fiske,  Lieut.  B.  A.     Electricity  in  Theory  and  Practice 8vo,  2  50 

Fleischmann,  W.     The  Book  of  the  Dairy.     Trans,  by  C.  M. 

Aikman 8vo,  4  oo 

Fleming,    J.    A.     The    Alternate-current    Transformer.     Two 

Volumes 8vo, 

Vol.    I.     The  Induction  of  Electric  Currents. . . , *5  oo 

Vol.  II.     The  Utilization  of  Induced  Currents *S  oo 

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Fleming,  J,  A.     Centenary  of  the  Electrical  Current 8vo,  *o  50 

Electric  Lamps  and  Electric  Lighting 8vo,  ^3  oo 

—  Electric  Laboratory  Notes  and  Forms 4to,  *5  oo 

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Room.     Two  Volumes 8vo,  each,  *5  oo 

Fluery,  H.     The  Calculus  Without   Limits  or    Infinitesimals. 

Trans,  by  C.  O.  Mailloux (In  Press.) 

Flynn,  P.  J.     Flow  of  Water.     (Science  Series  No.  84.). . .  i6mo,  o  50 

Hydraulic  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  66.) i6mo,  o  50 

Foley,  N.     British  and  American  Customary  and  Metric  Meas- 
ures   folio,  *3  oo 

Foster,    H.     A.     Electrical    Engineers'     Pocket-book.     (Sixth 

Edition.) , izmo,  leather,  5  oo 

Engineering  Valuation  of  Public  Utilities 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Foster,   Gen.   J.   G.     Submarine   Blasting   in   Boston    (Mass.) 

Harbor 4to,  3  50 

Fowle,  F.  F.     Overhead  Transmission  Line  Crossings  .. .  .i2mo,  *i  50 

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Fox,  W.  G.     Transition  Curves.     (Science  Series  No.  no.). i6mo,  050 
Fox,  W.,  and  Thomas,  C.  W.     Practical  Course  in  Mechanical 

Drawing i2mo,  i  25 

Foye,  J.  C.     Chemical  Problems.     (Science  Series  No.  69.). i6mo,  050 

Handbook  of  Mineralogy.     (Science  Series  No.  86.). .  i6mo,  o  50 

Francis,  J.  B.     Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments 4to,  15  oo 

Freudemacher,  P.   W.    Electrical  Mining  Installations.     (In- 
stallation Manuals  Series.) 121110,  *i  oo 

Fritsch,  J.    Manufacture  of  Chemical  Manures.     Trans,  by 

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Frye,  A.  I.    Civil  Engineers'  Pocket-book.     i2mo,  leather . .  (In  Press.) 
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River 4to,  *io  oo 

Furnell,  J.     Paints,  Colors,  Oils,  and  Varnishes 8vo,  *i  oo 

Gant,  L.  W.     Elements  of  Electric  Traction 8vo,  *2  50 

Garforth,  W.  E.     Rules  for  Recovering  Coal  Mines  after  Explo- 
sions and  Fires i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Gaudard,  J.     Foundations.     (Science  Series  No.  34.) i6mo,  o  50 

Gear,  H.  B.,  and  Williams,  P.  F.     Electric  Central  Station  Dis- 
tributing Systems i2mo,  *3  oo 


14     D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Geerligs,  H.  C.  P.  Cane  Sugar  and  Its  Manufacture 8vo,  *5  oo 

Geikie,  J.  Structural  and  Field  Geology 8vo,  *4  oo 

Gerber,  N.  Analysis  of  Milk,  Condensed  Milk,  and  Infants' 

Milk-Food 8vo,  i  25 

Gerhard,  W.  P.  Sanitation,  Water-supply  and  Sewage  Disposal 

of  Country  Houses i2mo,  *2  oo 

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Sanitary  Drainage  of  Buildings.     (Science  Series  No.  93.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Gerhardi,  C.  W.  H.     Electricity  Meters 8vo,  *4  oo 

Geschwind,  L.     Manufacture  of  Alum  and  Sulphates.     Trans. 

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Gibbs,  W.  E.     Lighting  by  Acetylene i2mo, .  *i  50 

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Text-books.) *i  50 

Gibson,  A.  H.     Hydraulics  and  Its  Application 8vo,  *5  oo 

Water  Hammer  in  Hydraulic  Pipe  Lines i2mo,  *2  oo 

Gilbreth,  F.  B.     Motion  Study.     A  Method  for  Increasing  the 

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Primer  of  Scientific  Management (In  Press.) 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Q.  A.     Limes,  Hydraulic  Cements  and  Mortars. 

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Golding,  H.  A.     The  Theta-Phi  Diagram i2mo,  *i  25 

Goldschmidt,  R.     Alternating  Current  Commutator  Motor  .8vo,  *3  oo 

Goodchild,  W.     Precious  Stones.     (Westminster  Series.).  ..8 vo,  *2  oo 

Goodeve,  T.  M.     Textbook  on  theJ  Steam-engine i2mo,  2  oo 

Gore,  G.     Electrolytic  Separation  of  Metals 8vo,  *3  50 

Gould,  E.  S.     Arithmetic  of  the  Steam-engine i2mo,  i  oo 

—  Calculus.     (Science  Series  No.  112.) i6mo,  o  50 

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Practical  Hydrostatics  and  Hydrostatic  Formulas.     (Science 

Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

Grant,    J.      Brewing    and    Distilling.      (Westminster    Series.) 

8vo    (In  Press.) 

Gratacap,  L.  P.    A  Popular  Guide  to  Minerals.    8vo (In  Press.) 

Gray,  J.     Electrical  Influence  Machines i2mo,  2  oo 


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Greenwood,  E.     Classified  Guide  to  Technical  and  Commercial 

Books 8vo,  *3  oo 

•Oregorius,  R.     Mineral  Waxes.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter i2mo,  *3  oo 

Griffiths,  A.  B.     A  Treatise  on  Manures ...    i2mo,  3  oo 

—  Dental  Metallurgy 8vo,  *3  50 

Gross,  E.     Hops 8vo,  *4  50 

Grossman,  J.     Ammonia  and  its  Compounds i2mo,  *i  '25 

Groth,  L.  A.     Welding  and  Cutting  Metals  by  Gases  or  Electric- 
ity   8 vo,  *3  oo 

Grover,  F.     Modern  Gas  and  Oil  Engines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Gruner,  A.     Power-loom  Weaving 8vo,  *3  oo 

Giildner,    Hugo.      Internal-Combustion    Engines.      Trans,    by 

H.  Diedrichs 4:0,  *io  oo 

Gunther,  C.  0.     Integration i2mo,  *i  25 

Gurden,  R.  L.     Traverse  Tables folio,  half  mor.  *7  50 

Guy,  A.  E.     Experiments  on  the  Flexure  of  Beams 8vo,  *i  25 

Haeder,  H.     Handbook  on  the  Steam-engine.     Trans,  by  H.  H. 

P.  Powles i2mo,  3  oo 

Haenig,  A.     Emery  and  the  Emery  Industry.  .  . 8vo, 

Hainbach,  R.     Pottery  Decoration.     Trans,  by  C.  Slater     12010,  *3  oo 

Hale,  W.  J.     Calculations  of  General  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  oo 

Hall,  C.  H.     Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles .  i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  R.  H.     Governors  and  Governing  Mechanism. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  W.  S.     Elements  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 

8vo,  *2  25 

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Haller,  G.  F.,  and  Cunningham,  E.  T.    The  Tesla  Coil* 1 2mo,  * i   25 

Halsey,  F.  A.     Slide  Valve  Gears i2mo,  i  50 

—  The  Use  of  the  Slide  Rule.     (Science  Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

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Hamilton,  W.  G.     Useful  Information  for  Railway  Men. .  i6mo,  i  oo 

Hammer, W.  J.     Radium  and  Other  Radioactive  Substances,  8vo,  *i  oo 

Hancock,  H.     Textbook  of  Mechanics  and  Hydrostatics. ....  8vo,  i  50 

Hardy,  E.     Elementary  Principles  of  Graphic  Statics .  i2mo,  *i  50 

Harrison,  W.  B.     The  Mechanics'  Tool-book — i2mo,  i  50 

Hart,  J.  W.     External  Plumbing  Work 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Principles  of  Hot  Water  Supply 8vo,  *3  do 


16    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Hart,  J.  W.     Sanitary  Plumbing  and  Drainage 8vo,  *3  oo 

Haskins,  C.  H.     The  Galvanometer  and  Its  Uses i6mo,  i  50 

Hatt,  J.  A.  H.     The  Colorist square  i2mo,  *i  50 

Hausbrand,  E.     Drying  by  Means  of  Air  and  Steam.     Trans. 

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Hausner,  A.  Manufacture  of  Preserved  Foods  and  Sweetmeats. 

Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *3  oo 

Hawke,  W.  H.  Premier  Cipher  Telegraphic  Code 4to,  *5  oo 

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Hawkesworth,  T.     Graphical  Handbook  for  Reniforced  Concrete 

Design 4to,  *2  50 

Hay,  A.     Alternating  Currents 8vo,  *2  50 

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Heap,  Major  D.  P.     Electrical  Appliances 8vo,  2  oo 

Heaviside,    0.     Electromagnetic    Theory.     Two    volumes. 

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Heck,  R.  C.  H.     Steam  Engine  and  Turbine 8vo,  *5  oo 

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Vol.    I.     Thermodynamics  and  the  Mechanics. 8vo,  *3  50 

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Hedges,  K.     Modern  Lightning  Conductors 8vo,  3  oo 

Heermann,  P.     Dyers'    Materials.     Trans,   by   A.  C.  Wright. 

i2mo,  *2  50 
Hellot,  Macquer  and  D'Apligny.  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Silk  and 

Cotton 8vo,  *2  oo 

Henrici,  0.  Skeleton  Structures 8vo,  i  50 

Hering,  D.  W.  Physics  for  College  Students (In  Preparation.) 

Hermann,  G.  The  Graphical  Statics  of  Mechanism.  Trans. 

by  A.  P.  Smith i2mo,  2  oo 

Herring-Shaw,  A.  Domestic  Sanitation  and  Plumbing.  Two 

Parts 8vo,  *5  oo 

Elementary  Science  of  Sanitation  and  Plumbing ....  8vo,  *2  oo 

Herzfeld,  J.  Testing  of  Yarns  and  Textile  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Hildebrandt,  A.  Airships,  Past  and  Present 8vo,  *3  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     17 

Hildenbrand,  B.  W.     Cable-Making.     (Science  Series  No.  32.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Hildich,  H.     Concise  History  of  Chemistry iimo,  *i  25 

Hill,  J.  W.     The  Purification  of  Public  Water  Supplies.     New 

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—  Interpretation  of  Water  Analysis (In  Press.) 

Hiroi,  I.     Plate  Girder  Construction.     (Science  Series  No.  95.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

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Hirshfeld,    C.    F.      Engineering     Thermodynamics.     (Science 

Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

Hobart,  H.  M.     Heavy  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *4  50 

Design  of  Static  Transformers 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Electric  Propulsion  of  Ships 8vo,  *2  oo 

Hobbs,  W.  R.  P".     The  Arithmetic  of  Electrical  Measurements 

1 2 mo,  o  50 

Hoff,  J.  N.     Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas i2mo,  *i  50 

Hoff,  Com.W.  B.  The  Avoidance  of  Collisions  at  Sea.  i6mo,  mor.,  o  75 

Hole,  W.     The  Distribution  of  Gas 8vo,  *7  50 

Holley,  A.  L.     Railway  Practice folio,  12  oo 

Holmes,  A.  B.     The  Electric  Light  Popularly  Explained. 

1 2 mo,  paper,  o  50 

Hopkins,  N.  M.     Experimental  Electrochemistry 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Hopkinson,  J.,  Shoolbred,  J.  N.,  and  Day,  R.  E.     Dynamic 

Electricity.     (Science  Series  No.  71.) i6mo,  o  So 

Horner,  J.     Engineers'  Turning 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Metal  Turning i2mo,  i  50 

—  Toothed  Gearing i2mo,  2  25 

Houghton,  C.  E.     The  Elements  of  Mechanics  of  Materials. 

i2mo,  *2  oo 

Houllevigue,  L.     The  Evolution  of  the  Sciences 8vo,  *2  oo 

Howe,  G.     Mathematics  for  the  Practical  Man i2mo,  *i  25 

Howorth,  J.     Repairing  and  Riveting  Glass,  China  and  Earthen- 
ware  8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Hub  bard,  E.     The  Utilization  of  Wood- waste 8vo,  *2  50 

Humber,  W.     Calculation  of  Strains  in  Girders i2mo,  2  50 


18     D.  VAN  NOSTRAXD  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Humphreys,    A.    C.     The    Business    Features    of   Engineering 

Practice 8vo,  *  i  25 

Hurst,  G.  H.     Handbook  of  the  Theory  of  Color 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Dictionary  of  Chemicals  and  Raw  Products 8vo,  *3  oo 

Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases 8vo,  *4  oo 

—  Soaps 8vo,  *5  oo 

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Hurst,  H.  E.,  and  Lattey,  R.  T.     Text-book  of  Physics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.     Long  Distance  Electric  Power  Trans- 
mission  i2mo,  *3  oo 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.,  and  Ihlseng,  M.  C.  Electricity  in 

Mining i2mo  (In  Press.) 

Hutchinson,  W.  B.  Patents  and  How  to  Make  Money  Out  of 

Them i2mo,  i  25 

Hutton,  W.  S.     Steam-boiler  Construction 8vo,  6  oo 

Practical  Engineer's  Handbook 8vo,  7  oo 

—  The  Works'  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  6  oo 

Hyde,  E.  W.     Skew  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  15.).. .  .  i6mo,  o  50 

Induction  Coils.     (Science  Series  No.  53.) i6mo,  o  50 

Ingle,  H.     Manual  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 8vo,  *3  oo 

Innes,  C.  H.     Problems  in  Machine  Design i2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Air  Compressors  and  Blowing  Engines i2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Centrifugal  Pumps i2mo,  *2  oo 

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Isherwood,  B.  F.     Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam  Machinery 

8vo,  2  50 

Ivatts,  E.  B.     Railway  Management  at  Stations 8vo,  *2  50 

Jacob,  A.,  and  Gould,  E.  S.     On  the  Designing  and  Construction 

of  Storage  Reservoirs.     (Science  Series  No.  6.). .  i6mo,  o  50 

Jamieson,  A.     Text  Book  on  Steam  and  Steam  Engines. .  .  .  8vo,  3  oo 

—  Elementary  Manual  on  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine .  1 2mo,  i  50 
Jannettaz,  E.     Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks.     Trans. 

by  G.  W.  Plympton i2mo,  i  50 

Jehl,  F.     Manufacture  of  Carbons 8vo,  *4  oo 

Jennings,    A.   S.     Commercial   Paints   and   Painting.     (West- 
minster Series.) 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Jennison,  F.  H.     The  Manufacture  of  Lake  Pigments 8vo,  *3  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     19 

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Mechanical  Drawing 8vo  (In  Preparation.} 

Jockin,  W.     Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith i2mo,  *i  oo 

Johnson,  G.  L.     Photographic  Optics  and  Color  Photography 

8vo,  *3  oo 
Johnson,  J.  H.    Arc  Lamps.     (Installation  Manuals  Series.) 

i2mo,  *o  75 
Johnson,    T.    M.      Ship   Wiring    and    Fitting.      (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) (In  Press.) 

Johnson,   W.    H.     The  Cultivation  and  Preparation   of   Para 

Rubber 8vo,  *3  oo 

Johnson,  W.  McA.     The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel (In  Preparation.) 

Johnston,  J.  F.  W.,  and  Cameron,  C.     Elements  of  Agricultural 

Chemistry  and  Geology izmo,  2  60 

Joly,  J.     Radioactivity  and  Geology. i2mo,  *3  oo 

Jones,  H.  C.     Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity 

1 2 mo,  *2  OO 

Jones,  M.  W.    Testing  Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint i2mo,  *2  oo 

Jones,  L.,  and  Scard,  F.  I.     Manufacture  of  Cane  Sugar 8vo,  *5  oo 

Joynson,  F.  H.     Designing  and  Construction  of  Machine  Gear- 
ing  8vo,  2  oo 

Jiiptner,  H.  F.  V.     Siderology:  The  Science  of  Iron 8vo,  *s  oo 

Kansas  City  Bridge 4to,  6  oo 

Kapp,  G.     Alternate  Current  Machinery.     (Science  Series  No. 

96.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  Electric  Transmission  of  Energy i2mo,  3  50 

Keim,  A.  W.     Prevention  of  Dampness  in  Buildings 8vo,  *2  oo 

Keller,  S.  S.     Mathematics  for  Engineering  Students. 

i2mo,  half  leather, 

—  Algebra  and  Trigonometry,  with  a  Chapter  on  Vectors *i  75 

—  Special  Algebra  Edition *i  oo 

Plane  and  Solid  Geometry *i  25 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus *2  oo 

Kelsey,  W.   R.      Continuous-current    Dynamos  and  Motors. 

8vo,  *2  50 
Kemble,  W.  T.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     The  Periodic  Law  and  the 

Hydrogen  Spectrum 8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Kemp,  J.  F.    Handbook  of  Rocks 8vo,  *i  50 


20    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Kendall,  E.  Twelve  Figure  Cipher  Code 4to,  *is  oo 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.  Kinematics  of 

Machinery.  (Science  Series  No.  54.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  Unwin,  W.  C.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.  Compressed 

Air.  (Science  Series  No.  106.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  R.  Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators.  Six 

Volumes 4to,  15  oo 

Single  Volumes each,  3  oo 

Electrical  Installations.  Five  Volumes. 4to,  15  oo 

Single  Volumes each,  3  50 

Principles  of  Aeroplane  Construction i2mo,  *i  50 

Flying  Machines;  Practice  and  Design i2mo,  *2  oo 

Kennelly,  A.  E.  Electro-dynamic  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Kent,  W.  Strength  of  Materials.  (Science  Series  No.  41.).  i6mo,  o  50 

Kershaw,  J.  B.  C.  Fuel,  Water  and  Gas  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Electrometallurgy.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

The  Electric  Furnace  in  Iron  and  Steel  Production.. i2mo,  *i  50 

Kinzbrunner,  C.     Alternate  Current  Windings 8vo,  *i  50 

—  Continuous  Current  Armatures 8vo,  *i  50 

Testing  of  Alternating  Current  Machines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Kirkaldy,    W.    G.     David    Kirkaldy's   System    of    Mechanical 

Testing 4to,  10  oo 

Kirkbride,  J.     Engraving  for  Illustration 8vo,  *i  50 

Kirkwood,  J.  P.     Filtration  of  River  Waters 4to,  7  50 

Klein,  J.  F.     Design  of  a  High  speed  Steam-engine 8vo,  *5  oo 

Physical  Significance  of  Entropy 8vo,  *i  50 

Kleinhans,  F.  B.     Boiler  Construction 8vo,  3  oo 

Knight,  R.-Adm.  A.  M.    Modem  Seamanship 8vo,  *7  50 

Half  Mor.  *Q  oo 

Knox,  W.  F.     Logarithm  Tables (In  Preparation.) 

Knott,  C.  G.,  and  Mackay,  J.  S.     Practical  Mathematics .  .  .  8vo,  2  oo 

Koester,  F.     Steam-Electric  Power  Plants 4to,  *s  oo 

—  Hydroelectric  Developments  and  Engineering .4to,  *5  oo 

Koller,  T.     The  Utilization  of  Waste  Products 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Cosmetics 8vo,  *2  50 

Kretchmar,  K.    Yarn  and  Warp  Sizing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Lambert,  T.     Lead  and  its  Compounds 8vo,  *3  50 

Bone  Products  and  Manures 8vo,  ,*3  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTHAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG   21 

Lamborn,  L.  L.     Cottonseed  Products 8vo,     *3  oo 

—  Modern  Soaps,  Candles,  and  Glycerin 8vo,     *7  50 

Lamprecht,  R.     Recovery  Work  After  Pit  Fires.      Trans,  by 

C.  Salter 8vo,     *4  oo 

Lanchester,  F.  W.     Aerial  Flight.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.    I.     Aerodynamics *6  oo 

Vol.  II.     Aerodonetics *6  oo 

Lamer,  E.  T.     Principles  of  Alternating  Currents i2mo,     *i  25 

Larrabee,   C.   S.     Cipher   and  Secret   Letter  and  Telegraphic 

Code i6mo,       o  60 

La  Rue,  B.   F.     Swing  Bridges.     (Science   Series  No.    107.). 

i6mo,      o  50 
Lassar-Cohn,  Dr.     Modern  Scientific  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  M. 

M.  Pattison  Muir .-i2mo,     *2  oo 

Latimer,  L.  H.,  Field,  C.  J.,  and  Howell,  J.  W.     Incandescent 

Electric  Lighting.     (Science  Series  No.  57.) i6mo,      o  50 

Latta,  M.  N.     Handbook  of  American  Gas-Engineering  Practice. 

8vo,     *4  50 

American  Producer  Gas  Practice 4to,     *6  oo 

Leask,  A.  R.     Breakdowns  at  Sea i2mo,       2  oo 

Refrigerating  Machinery  . . . i2mo,       2  oo 

Lecky,  S.  T.  S.     "  Wrinkles  "  in  Practical  Navigation 8vo,     *8  oo 

Le  Doux,  M.     Ice-Making  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  46.) 

i6mo,       o  50 
Leeds,  C.  C.    Mechanical  Drawing  for  Trade  Schools .  oblong,  4to, 

High  School  Edition , *i  25 

Machinery  Trades  Edition *2  oo 

Lefe*vre,  L.     Architectural  Pottery.     Trans,  by  H.  K.  Bird  and 

W.  M.  Binns 4to,     *7  50 

Lehner,  S.     Ink  Manufacture.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H. 

Robson 8vo,     *2  50 

Lemstrom,  S.     Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticultures 

8vo,     *i  50 
Le  Van,  W.  B.     Steam-Engine  Indicator.     (Science  Series  No. 

78.) i6mo?      o  50 

Lewes,  V.  B.     Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,     *2  oo 

Lewis,  L.  P.    Railway  Signal  Engineering 8vo, 

(In  Press.) 


'22    D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Lieber,  B.  F.     Lieber's  Standard  Telegraphic  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Code.     German  Edition 8vo,  *  10  oo 

—  Spanish  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

—  French  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

—  Terminal  Index 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Lieber's  Appendix folio,  *is  oo 

—  Handy  Tables 4to,  *2  50 

—  Bankers    and    Stockbrokers'    Code    and    Merchants    and 

Shippers'  Blank  Tables 8vo,  *is  oo 

100,000,000  Combination  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Engineering  Code 8vo,  *i2  50 

Livermore,  V.  P.,  and  Williams,  J.     How  to  Become  a  Com- 
petent Motorman i2mo,  *i  oo 

Livingstone,    R.     Design   and  Construction   of   Commutators. 

8vo,  *2  25 

Lobben,  P.     Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Handbook  .....  8vo,  2  50 

Locke,  A.  G.  and  C.  G.     Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid 8vo,  10  oo 

Lockwood,  T.  D.     Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro-teleg- 
raphy  8vo,  2  50 

—  Electrical  Measurement  and  the  Galvanometer i2mo,  i  50 

Lodge,  O.  J.     Elementary  Mechanics I2mo,  i  50 

—  Signalling  Across  Space  without  Wires 8vo,  *2  oo 

Lord,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Loring,  A.  E.     A  Handbook  of  the  Electromagnetic  Telegraph. 

(Science  Series  No.  39) i6mo,       o  50 

Loewenstein,  L.  C.,  and  Crissey,  C.P.    Centrifugal  Pumps . 

8vo,     *4  50 
Lucke,  C.  E.     Gas  Engine  Design , 8vo,     *3  oo 

—  Power  Plants:  their  Design,  Efficiency,  and  Power  Costs. 

2  vols (In  Preparation.) 

Lunge,  G.     Coal-tar  Ammonia.     Two  Volumes 8vo,  "15  oo 

—  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali.     Three  Volumes 

8vo, 

Vol.    L     Sulphuric  Acid.     In  two  parts *i5  oo 

Vol.  II.     Salt  Cake,  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Leblanc  Soda. 

In  two  parts *i5  oo 

Vol.  ffl.    Ammonia  Soda *io  oo 

Vol.  IV.    Electrolytic  Methods. (In  Press.) 

Technical  Chemists'  Handbook i2mo,  leather,     *3  50 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHOUT-TITLE  CATALOG    23 

Lunge,  G.  Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis.  Trans, 
by  C.  A.  Keane.  In  collaboration  with  the  corps  of 
specialists. 

Vol.    I.     In  two  parts 8vo,  *i5  oo 

Vol.  II.    In  two  parts 8vo,  *i8  oo 

Vol.  Ill (In  Preparation.) 

Lupton,  A.,  Parr,  G.  D.  A.,  and  Perkin,  H.     Electricity  as  Applied 

to  Mining 8vo,     *4  50 

Luquer,  L.  M.     Minerals  in  Rock  Sections 8vo,     *i  50 

Macewen,  H.  A.     Food  Inspection 8vo,     *2  50 

Mackenzie,  N.  F.     Notes  on  Irrigation  Works 8vo,     *2  50 

Mackie,  J.     How  to  Make  a  Woolen  Mill  Pay 8vo,     *2  oo 

Mackrow,  C.  Naval  Architect's  and  Shipbuilder's  Pocket- 
book i6mo,  leather,  5  oo 

Maguire,  Wm.  R.     Domestic  Sanitary  Drainage  and  Plumbing 

8vo,      4  oo 
Mallet,    A.     Compound    Engines.     Trans,    by    R.    R.    Buel. 

(Science  Series  No.  10.) i6mo, 

Mansfield,  A.  N.     Electro-magnets.     (Science  Series  No.  64) 

i6mo,      o  50 
Marks,  E.  C.  R.     Construction  of  Cranes  and  Lifting  Machinery 

I21T1O,       *I    5O 

—  Construction  and  Working  of  Pumps. i2mo,  *i  50 

—  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  Tubes i2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Mechanical  Engineering  Materials i2mo,  *i  oo 

Marks,  G.  C.     Hydraulic  Power  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

—  Inventions,  Patents  and  Designs i2mo,  *i  oo 

Marlow,  T.  G.     Drying  Machinery  and  Practice 8vo,  *5  oo 

Marsh,  C.  F.     Concise  Treatise  on  Reinforced  Concrete.. .  .8vo,  *2  50 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.     Reinforced  Concrete 4to,  *5  oo 

—  Manual  of  Reinforced  Concrete  and  Concrete  Block  Con- 

struction  i6mo,  mor.,     *2  50 

Marshall,  W.  J.,  and  Sankey,  H.  R.    Gas  Engines.    (Westminster 

Series.) 8vo,     *2  oo 

Martin,   G.    Triumphs  and  Wonders  of  Modern  Chemistry. 

8vo,  *2  oo 
Massie,  W.  W.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and 

Telephony i2mo,     *i  oo 


24     D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG 

Matheson,  D.     Australian  Saw-Miller's  Log  and  Timber  Ready 

Reckoner i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Mathot,  R.  E.     Internal  Combustion  Engines 8vo,  *6  oo 

Maurice,  W.     Electric  Blasting  Apparatus  and  Explosives  . .  8vo,  *3  50 

—  Shot  Firer's  Guide 8vo,  *i  50 

Maxwell,  J.  C.     Matter  and  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  36.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Maxwell,  W.  H.,  and  Brown,  J.  T.     Encyclopedia  of  Municipal 

and  Sanitary  Engineering 4to,  *io  oo 

Mayer,  A.  M.     Lecture  Notes  on  Physics 8vo,  2  oo 

McCullough,  R.  S.     Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat .  8vo,  3  50 

Mclntosh,  J.  G.     Technology  of  Sugar 8vo,  *4  50 

—  Industrial  Alcohol 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Manufacture  of  Varnishes  and  Kindred  Industries.    Three 

Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.  I.     Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling *3  50 

Vol.  II.     Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making *4  oo 

Vol.  IH.    Spirit  Varnishes  and  Materials *4  50 

McKnight,   J.   D.,  and  Brown,   A.  W.     Marine   Multitubular 

Boilers _ *i  50 

McMaster,  J.  B.     Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centres.     (Science  Series 

No.  20.) i6mo,  o  50 

McMechen,  F.  L.     Tests  for  Ores,  Minerals  and  Metals. . .  i2mo,  *i  oo 

McNeill,  B.     McNeill's  Code 8vo,  *6  oo 

McPherson,  J.  A.     Water- works  Distribution 8vo,  2  50 

Melick,  C.  W.     Dairy  Laboratory  Guide i2mo,  *i  25 

Merck,  E.     Chemical  Reagents ;  Their  Purity  and  Tests ....  8vo,  *i  50 

Merritt,  Wm.  H.  Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver  i6mo,  leather,  i  50 
Meyer,  J.  G.  A.,  and  Pecker,  C.  G.     Mechanical  Drawing  and 

Machine  Design 4to,  5  oo 

Michell,  S.     Mine  Drainage 8vo,  10  oo 

Mierzinski,  S.     Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris 

and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Miller,  E.  H.     Quantitative  Analysis  for  Mining  Engineers ..  8vo,  *i  50 
Miller,  G.  A.     Determinants.     (Science  Series  No.  105.).  .  i6mo, 

Milroy,  M.  E.  W.     Home  Lace -making 12010,  *i  oo 

Minifie,  W.     Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Mitchell,  C.  A.,  and  Prideaux,  R.  M.     Fibres  Used-in  Textile  and 

llied  Industries 8vo,  *3  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG  25 

Modern  Meteorology I2mo,  i  50 

Monckton,  C.  C.  F.     Radiotelegraphy.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Monteverde,  R.  D.     Vest  Pocket  Glossary  of  English-Spanish, 

Spanish-English  Technical  Terms 64mo,  leather,  *i  oo 

Moore,  E.  C.  S.     New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solution  of  • 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  Formula 8vo,  *5  oo 

Morecroft,  J.  H.,  and  Hehre,  F.  W.    Testing  Electrical  Ma- 
chinery   8vo,  *i  50 

Moreing,  C.  A.,  and  Neal,  T.     New  General  and  Mining  Tele- 
graph Code 8vo,  *5  oo 

Morgan,  A.  P.     Wireless  Telegraph  Construction  for  Amateurs. 

i2mo,  *i  50 

Moses,  A.  J.     The  Characters  of  Crystals 8vo,  *2  oo 

Moses,  A.  J.,  and  Parsons,  C.  I.     Elements  of  Mineralogy ..  8vo,  *2  50 

Moss,    S.    A.     Elements    of    Gas    Engine    Design.     (Science 

Series.) i6mo,  o  50 

—  The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.    (Science  Series) .  i6mo,  o  50 
Mullin,  J.  P.     Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern-making.  .  .  .  i2mo,  2  50 
Munby,  A.  E.     Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Building  Materials. 

{Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Murphy,  J.  G.     Practical  Mining i6mo,  i  oo 

Murray,  J.  A.     Soils  and  Manures.     (Westminster  Series.). 8 vo,  *2  oo 

Naquet,  A.     Legal  Chemistry i2mo,  2  oo 

Nasmith,  J.     The  Student's  Cotton  Spinning 8vo,  3  oo 

—  Recent  Cotton  Mill  Construction i2mo,  2  oo 

Neave,  G.  B.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.    Identification  of  Organic 

Compounds i2mo,  *i  25 

Neilson,  R.  M.  Aeroplane  Patents 8vo,  *2  oo 

Nerz,  F.  Searchlights.  Trans,  by  C.  Rodgers 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nesbit,  A.  F.  Electricity  and  Magnetism (In  Preparation.) 

Neuberger,  H.,  and  Noalhat,  H.  Technology  of  Petroleum. 

Trans,  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh. 8vo,  *io  oo 

Newall,  J.  W.  Drawing,  Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears.. .  .  8vo,  i  50 

Nicol,  G.  Ship  Construction  and  Calculations. 8vo,  *4  50 

Nipher,  F.  E.  Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements i2mo,  i  oo 

Nisbet,  H.  Grammar  of  Textile  Design 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nolan,  H.  The  Telescope.  (Science  Series  No.  51.) i6mo,  o  50 


26     D.  VAX  XOSTRAXD  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Noll,  A.     How  to  Wire  Buildings i2mo,       i  50 

Nugent,  E.     Treatise  on  Optics i2mo,       i  50 

O'Connor,  H.     The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook.    .  i2mo,  leather,       3  50 

—  Petrol  Air  Gas izmo,     *o  75 

Ohm,  G.  S.,  and  Lockwood,  T.  D.     Galvanic  Circuit.     Trans,  by 

William  Francis.     (Science  Series  No.  102.).  .  .  .  i6mo,  o  50 
Olsen,  J.  C.     Text    book  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  . . 

8vo,  *4  oo 
Olsson,  A.     Motor  Control,  in  Turret  Turning  and  Gun  Elevating. 

(U.  S.  Navy  Electrical  Series,  No.  i.)  .  ...i2mo,  paper,  *o  50 

Oudin,  M.  A.     Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems  . .  8vo,  *3  oo 

Palaz,  A.     Industrial  Photometry.     Trans,  by  G.  W.  Patterson, 

Jr 8vo,     *4  oo 

Pamely,  C.     Colliery  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  *io  oo 

Parr,  G.  D.  A.     Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instruments. 

8vo,     *3  50 

Parry,  E.  J.     Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artificial  Per- 
fumes  8vo,     *5  oo 

—  Foods  and  Drugs.     Two  Volumes 8vo, 

Vol.   I.     Chemical  and  Microscopical  Analysis  of  Food 

and  Drugs 

Vol.  II.     Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Acts 

Parry,  E.  J.,  and  Coste,  J.  H.     Chemistry  of  Pigments 8vo,     *4  50 

Parry,  L.  A.     Risk  and  Dangers  of  Various  Occupations 8vo,     *3  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F  ,  and  Hobart,  H.  M.     Armature  Windings  ....  4to,     *7  50 

—  Electric  Railway  Engineering 4to,  *io  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Parry,  E.     Electrical  Equipment  of  Tram- 
ways.  (In  Press.) 

Parsons,  S.  J.     Malleable  Cast  Iron 8vo,  *2  50 

Partington,  J.  R.     Higher  Mathematics  for  Chemical  Students 

i2mo,  *2  oo 

Passmore,  A.  C.     Technical  Terms  Used  in  Architecture  .  ..8vo,  *3  50 

Patterson,  D.     The  Color  Printing  of  Carpet  Yarns 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Color  Matching  on  Textiles 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  The  Science  of  Color  Mixing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Paulding,  C.  P.     Condensation  of  Steanv  in  Covered  and  Bare 

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1).  VAN  NOSTRAXD  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG      27 

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Pendred,  V.     The  Railway  Locomotive.     (Westminster  Series.) 

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Perrine,  F.  A.  C.     Conductors  for  Electrical  Distribution  .  .  .  8vo,  *3  50 

Perry,  J.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  *2  50 

Petit,  G.     White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints 8vo,  *i  50 

Petit,  R.     How  to  Build  an  Aeroplane.     Trans,   by  T.  O'B. 

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Pettit,  Lieut.  J.  S.     Graphic  Processes.     (Science  Series  No.  76.) 

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Philbrick,  P.  H.     Beams  and  Girders.     (Science  Series  No.  88.) 

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Phillips,  J.     Engineering  Chemistry .  8vo,  *4  50 

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Pickworth,  C.  N.     The  Indicator  Handbook.     Two  Volumes 

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Plympton,  G.  W.     The  Aneroid  Barometer.     (Science  Series.) 

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Pochet,  M.  L.     Steam  Injectors.     Translated  from  the  French. 

(Science  Series  No.  29.) i6mo,  o  50 

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Prescott,  A.  B.     Organic  Analysis. 8vo,  5  oo 

Prescott,   A.   B.,   and  Johnson,   0.   C.     Quauitative   Chemical 

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Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Sullivan,  E.  C.     First  Book  in  Qualitative 

Chemistry i2mo,  *i  50 

Pritchard,  0.  G.     The  Manufacture  of  Electric-light  Carbons. 

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Pullen,  W.  W.  F.     Application  of  Graphic  Methods  to  the  Design 

of  Structures. . '. $ i2mo,  *2  50 

Injectors:  Theory,  Construction  and  Working i2mo,  *i  50 

Pulsifer,  W.  H.     Notes  for  a  History  of  Lead 8vo,  4  oo 

Purchase,  W.  R.     Masonry i2mo,  *3  oo 

Putsch,  A.     Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Pynchon,  T.  R.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics 8vo,  3  oo 

Rafter,  G.  W.     Mechanics  of  Ventilation.     (Science  Series  No. 

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Rafter,  G.  W.,  and  Baker,  M.  N.     Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United 

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Raikes,  H.  P.     Sewage  Disposal  Works 8vo,  *4  oo 

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Rankine,  W.  J.  M.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  5  oo 

Civil  Engineering 8vo,  6  50 

Machinery  and  Millwork 8vo,  5  oo 

The  Steam-engine  and  Other  Prime  Movers 8vo,  5  oo 

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Rankine,  W.  J.  M.,  and  Bamber,  E.  F.     A  Mechanical  Text- 
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Raphael,  F.  C.     Localization  of    Faults  in  Electric  Light  and 

Power  Mains 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rathbone,  R.  L.  B.     Simple  Jewellery 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rateau,   A.     Flow  of  Steam  through  Nozzles    and    Orifices. 

Trans,  by  H.  B.  Brydon 8vo,  *i  50 

Rausenberger,  F.     The  Theory  of  the  Recoil  of  Guns 8vo,  *4  50 

Rautenstrauch,  W.     Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design, 

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Rautenstrauch,  W.,  and  Williams,  J.  T.     Machine  Drafting  and 
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Raymond,  E.  B.     Alternating  Current  Engineering i2mo,  *2  50 

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Recipes  for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,  Oil,  Soap  and  Drysaltery 

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Redwood,  B.     Petroleum.     (Science  Series  No.  92.) i6mo,  o  50 

Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook 8vo,  *5  oo 

Key  to  the  Nineteenth  Edition  of  Reed's  Engineers'  Hand- 
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Reed's  Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers i2mo,  i  50 

Marine  Boilers i2mo,  2  oo 

Reinhardt,  C.  W.     Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers,  and 

Students oblong  4to,  boards,  i  oo 

The  Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting.,  .oblong  4to,  boards,  *i  oo 

Reiser,  F.     Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris  and  H.  Robson i2mo,  *2  50 

Reiser,  N.     Faults  in  the  Manufacture  of  Woolen  Goods.     Trans. 

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Ren  wick,  W.  G.     Marble  and  Marble  Working 8vo,  5  oo 

Reynolds,   0.,   and   Idell,   F.    E.     Triple   Expansion   Engines. 

(Science  Series  No.  99.) i6mo,  o  50 

Rhead,  G.  F.     Simple  Structural  Woodwork i2mo,  *i  oo 

Rhead,  G.  W.     British  Pottery  Marks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rice,  J.  M.,  and  Johnson,  W.  W.     A  New  Method  of  Obtaining 

the  Differential  of  Functions i2mo,  o  50 

Richardson,  J.     The  Modern  Steam  Engine 8vo,  *3  50 

Richardson,  S.  S.     Magnetism  and  Electricity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Rideal,  S.     Glue  and  Glue  Testing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rings,  F.     Concrete  in  Theory  and  Practice i2mo,  *2  50 

Ripper,  W.     Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing. . .  folio,  *6  oo 
Roberts,  F.  C.     Figure  of  the  Earth.     (Science  Series  No.  79.) 

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Roberts,  J.,  Jr.      Laboratory  Work  in  Electrical  Engineering. 

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Robertson,  L.  S.     Water-tube  Boilers 8vo,  3  oo 

Robinson,  J.  B.     Architectural  Composition 8vo,  *2  50 

Robinson,  S.  W.     Practical  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels. 

(Science  Series  No.  24.) i6mo,  o  50 

Railroad  Economics.     (Science  Series  No.  59.) i6mo,  o  50 

Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Members.     (Science  Series  No.  60.) 

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Robson,  J.  H,    Machine  Drawing  and  Sketching 8vo,  *i  50 

Roebling,  J.  A.     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges .  .    folio,  25  oo 

Rogers,  A.     A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial  Chemistry .  .  i2mo,  *i  50 

Rogers,  A.,  and  Aubert,  A.  B.     Industrial  Chemistry (In  Press.) 

Rogers,  F.     Magnetism  of  Iron  Vessels.     (Science  Series  No.  30.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Rollins,  W.     Notes  on  X-Light 8vo,  5  oo 

Rose,  J.     The  Pattern-makers'  Assistant 8vo,  2  50 

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Rose,  T.  K.     The  Precious  Metals.     (Westminster  Series.) .  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Rosenhain,  W.  Glass  Manufacture.  (Westminster  Series.).  .8 vo,  *2  oo 

Ross,  W.  A.     Blowpipe  in  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy.  .  .i2mo,  *2  oo 
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D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     31 

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Rouillion,  L.     The  Economics  of  Manual  Training 8vo,  2  oo 

Rowan,  F.  J.     Practical  Physics  of  the  Modern  Steam-boiler 

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Rowan,  F.  J.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Boiler  Incrustation  and  Corro- 
sion.    (Science  Series  No.  27.) i6mo,  o  50 

Roxburgh,  W.     General  Foundry  Practice 8vo,  *3  50 

Ruhmer,    E.     Wireless    Telephony.     Trans,    by    J.    Erskine- 

Murray 8vo,  *3  50 

Russell,  A.     Theory  of  Electric  Cables  and  Networks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Sabine,  R.    History  and  Progress  of   the   Electric  Telegraph. 

i2ino,  i  25 

Saeltzer,  A.     Treatise  on  Acoustics I2mo,  I  oo 

Salomons,  D.     Electric  Light  Installations.     i2mo. 

Vol.     I.     The  Management  of  Accumulators 2  50 

Vol.    II.     Apparatus 2  25 

Vol.  III.     Applications i  50 

Sanford,  P.  G.     Nitro-explosives 8vo,  *4  oo 

Saunders,  C.  H.     Handbook  of  Practical  Mechanics i6mo,  i  oo 

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Saunnier,  C.     Watchmaker's  Handbook i2mo,  3  oo 

Sayers,  H.  M.     Brakes  for  Tram  Cars. 8vo,  *i  25 

Scheele,  C.  W.     Chemical  Essays 8vo,  *2  oo 

Schellen,  H.     Magneto-electric  and  Dynamo -electric  Machines 

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Scherer,  R.     Casein.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schidrowitz,  P.    Rubber,  Its  Production  and  Uses 8vo,  *5  oo 

Schmall,  C.  N.     First  Course  in  Analytic  Geometry,  Plane  and 

Solid i2mo,  half  leather,  *i  75 

Schmall,  C.  N.,  and  Schack,  S.  M.     Elements  of  Plane  Geometry 

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Schmeer,  L.     Flow  of  Water 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schumann,  F.     A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

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Schwartz,  E.  H.  L.     Causal  Geology 8vo,  *2  50 

Schweizer,  V.,  Distillation  of  Resins 8vo,  *3  50 

Scott,  W.  W.     Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.     A  Laboratory 

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Scribner,  J.  M.     Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Companion. 

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Searle,  A.  B.     Modern  Brickmaking 8vo,  *5  oo 

Searle,  G.  M.     "  Stunners'  Method."     Condensed  and  Improved. 

(Science  Series  No.  124.) 8vo.  o  50 

Seaton,  A.  E.     Manual  of  Marine  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Seaton,  A.  E.,  and  Rounthwaite,  H.  M.     Pocket-book  of  Marine 

Engineering i6mo,  leather,  3  oo 

Seeligmann,  T.,  Torrilhon,  G.  L.,  and  Falconnet,  H.     India 

Rubber  and  Gutta  Percha.     Trans,  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh 

8vo,  *5  oo 
Seidell,  A.     Solubilities  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Substances 

8vo,  *3  oo 

Sellew,  W.  H.     Steel  Rails 4to  (In  Press.} 

Senter,  G.    Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry 121x10,  *i  75 

Sever,  G.  F.     Electric  Engineering  Experiments  ....  8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 
Sever,  G.  F.,  and  Townsend,  F.     Laboratory  and  Factory  Tests 

in  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *2  50 

Sewall,  C.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy 8vo,  *2  oo 

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Sewell,  T.     Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *3  oo 

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Sexton,  A.  H,     Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials I2mo,  *2  50 

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Seymour,  A.     Practical  Lithography 8vo,  *2  50 

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Shaw,  H.  S.  H.     Mechanical  Integrators.    (Science  Series  No. 

83.) i6mo,  o  50 

Shaw,  P.  E.  Course  of  Practical  Magnetism  and  Electricity .  8vo,  *i  oo 

Shaw,  S.  History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries 8vo,  *3  oo 

Chemistry  of  Compounds  Used  in  Porcelain  Manufacture 

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Shaw,  W.  N.  Forecasting  Weather 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.  Direct  Current  Machines. 

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Sherriff,  F.  F.     Oil  Merchants'  Manual i2mo,  *3  50 

Shields,  J.  E.     Notes  on  Engineering  Construction i2mo,  i  50 

Shock,  W.  H.     Steam  Boilers 4to,  half  mor.,  15  oo 

Shreve,  S.  H.     Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs 8vo,  3  50 

Shunk,  W.  F.     The  Field  Engineer i2mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Appleton,  H.  A.     Handbook  of  Soap 

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Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Mitchell,  €.  A.    Edible  Fats  and  Oils.  *3  oo 

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Simms,  F.  W.     The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Leveling 8vo,  2  50 

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Simpson,  G.     The  Naval  Constructor i2mo,  mor.,  *5  oo 

Sinclair,  A.     Development  of  the  Locomotive  Engine. 

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Sindall,  R.  W.     Manufacture  of  Paper.     (Westminster  Series.) 

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Sloane,  T.  O'C.     Elementary  Electrical  Calculations i2mo,  *2  oo 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.    Handbook  of  Testing.    Vol.1.    Materials..  *2  50 
Smith,  C.  A.  M.,  and  Warren,  A.  G.    New  Steam  Tables.. 8vo, 

Smith,  C.  F.     Practical  Alternating  Currents  and  Testing ..  8vo,  *2  50 

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Smith,  F.  E.     Handbook  of  General  Instruction  for  Mechanics. 

1 2 mo,  i  50 

Smith,  J.  C.     Manufacture  of  Paint 8vo,  *3  oo 

Smith,  R.  H.    Principles  of  Machine  Work i2mo,  *3  oo 

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Smith,  W.     Chemistry  of  Hat  Manufacturing i2mo,  *3  oo 

Snell,  A.  T.     Electric  Motive  Power 8vo,  *4  oo 

Snow,  W.  G.     Pocketbook  of  Steam  Heating  and  Ventilation . .  (In  Press.) 
Snow,  W.  G.,  and  Nolan,  T.     Ventilation  of  Buildings.     (Science 

Series  No.  5.) i6mo,  o  50 

Soddy,  F.     Radioactivity 8vo,  *3  oo 

Solomon,  M.     Electric  Lamps.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sothern,  J.  W.     The  Marine  Steam  Turbine 8vo,  *5  oo 

Soxhlet,  D.  H.     Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Spang,  H.  W.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Lightning  Protection. 

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Spangenburg,  L.  Fatigue  of  Metals.  Translated  by  S.  H. 

Shreve.  (Science  Series  No.  23.) i6mo,  o  50 

Specht,  G.  J.,  Hardy,  A.  S.,  McMaster,  J.  B.,  and  Walling.  Topo- 
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Speyers,  C.  L.     Text-book  of  Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  25 

Stahl,  A.  W.  Transmission  of  Power.  (Science  Series  No.  28.) 

i6mo, 

Stahl,  A.  W.,  and  Woods,  A.  T.     Elementary  Mechanism   .  1 2mo,  *2  oo 

Staley,  C.,  and  Pierson,  G.  S.  The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage. 

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Standage,  H.  C.     Leatherworkers'  Manual 8vo,  *3  50 

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Stansbie,  J.' H.     Iron  and  Steel.     (Westminster  Series. )         8vo,  *2  oo 
Steinman,  D.  B.     Suspension  Bridges  and  Cantilevers.    (Science 

Series  No.  127.) o  50 

Stevens,  H.  P.     Paper  Mill  Chemist i6mo,  *2  50 

Stevenson,  J.  L.     Blast-Furnace  Calculations.  .  .  .i2mo,  leather,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  A.     Modern  Polyphase  Machinery. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  G.     Modern  Steam  Traps i2mo,  *i  25 

Stiles,  A.     Tables  for  Field  Engineers i2mo,  i  oo 

Stillman,  P.     Steam-engine  Indicator i2mo,  i  oo 

Stodola,  A.     Steam   Turbines.     Trans,  by  L.  C.  Loewenstein. 

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Stone,  H.     The  Timbers  of  Commerce 8vo,  3  50 

Stone,  Gen.  R.     New  Roads  and  Road  Laws i2mo,  i  oo 

Stopes,  M.     Ancient  Plants 8vo,  *2  oo 

The  Study  of  Plant  Life 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sudborough,  J.  J.,  and  James,  T.  C.     Practical  Organic  Chem- 

•    istry i2mo,  *2  oo 

Suffling,  E.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting 8vo,  *3  50 

Swan,  K.     Patents,  Designs  and  Trade  Marks.     (Westminster 

Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sweet,  S.  H.     Special  Report  on  Coal 8vo,  3  oo 

Swinburne,  J,,  Wordingham,  C.  H.,  and  Martin,  T.  C      Electric 

Currents.     (Science  Series  No.  109.) i6mo,  o  50 

Swoope,  C.  W.     Practical  Lessons  in  Electricity. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Taiifer,  L.     Bleaching  Linen  and  Cotton  Yarn  and  Fabrics .  8vo,  *5  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTKAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT-TITLE  CATALOG     35 

Tate,  J.  S.     Surcharged  and  Different  Forms  of  Retaining-walls. 

Science  Series  No.  7. i6mo, 

Templeton,  W.     Practical  Mechanic's  Workshop  Companion. 

i2mo,  mor.,  2  oo 
Terry,  H.  L.     India  Rubber  and  its  Manufacture.     (Westminster 

Series.) ' 8vo,  *2  oo 

Thayer,  H.  R.     Structural  Design (In  Press.) 

Thiess,  J.  B.,  and  Joy,  G.  A.     Toll  Telephone  Practice .  .  (In  Preparation.) 
Thorn,  C.,  and  Jones,  W.  H.     Telegraphic  Connections. 

oblong  i2mo  i  50 

Thomas,  C.  W.     Paper-makers'  Handbook (In  Press.) 

Thompson,  A.  B.     Oil  Fields  of  Russia. 4to,  *7  50 

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Thompson,  E.  P.     How  to  Make  Inventions 8vo,  o  50 

Thompson,  S.  P.     Dynamo  Electric  Machines.     (Science  Series 

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